Product Code Database
Chhayavad (ISO: ) refers to the era of Neo-romanticism in Hindi literature, particularly poetry, spanning approximately from mid-1910s to early-1940s. It emerged as a reaction to the didacticism of its previous poetic movement - the Dwivedi era - as well as the courtly traditions of poetry.
It was marked by a renewed sense of the self and personal expression with an increase in romantic and humanist content. It is known for its leaning towards themes of Nature writing, as well as an individualistic reappropriation in a new form of mysticism.
The movement is typically attributed to Jaishankar Prasad, Suryakant Tripathi Nirala, Sumitranandan Pant, and Mahadevi Varma, often cited as the four pillars of Chāyāvād. Their writings reflected a conscious blending of classical Indian heritage with occidental sensibilities. The movement delved into love as a spiritual and transformative force, reverence for nature as a source of solace, and the individual's quest for identity and connection with the divine. These themes incorporated traditional values with the evolving ideas of freedom and self-expression during the country's struggle for independence.
It is characterized by a lyrical, poetic, and musical accomplishment of modern Hindi literature. Anchored in new sensibilities, it concluded with the rise of the experimental spirit of Prayogvad and the socially engaged Pragativad, together reflecting the dynamic evolution of Hindi poetry in the early 20th century.
The term chāyā appears in the Upanishads, where it refers to the universe as a phenomenal reflection of transcendental reality. This interpretation is supported by the broader intellectual environment of that time, when figures like Vivekananda and Rabindranath Tagore were revisiting the Upanishads and introducing modern interpretations of ancient texts.Ritter, Valerie (2011), p.220-221
Researchers have also proposed that the term may be associated with the reflection of the literary expression exemplified in Tagore Gitanjali which itself was influenced by Romanticism of English literature.Gupta, Ankita (2018)
The first use of the term chāyāvād in the context of Hindi poetry is attributed to Mukutdhar Pandey, who introduced it through his collection of essays in 1920. Namvar Singh notes that the essays were presented with annotations, suggesting that commentaries on this poetic style already existed. Scholars agree that the essence of chāyāvād' began to take shape around the mid-1910s, predating its formal recognition in 1920.Singh, Namvar (2018), p.11
A significant shift in Hindi poetry occurred with the founding of the magazine Sarasvatī in 1900, under the editorship of Mahavir Prasad Dwivedi. While initially appreciated more for its social and literary goals than for its aesthetic value, the Dwivedi yug marked a transformation in the content of Hindi poetry. Poets of this era moved away from the limited scope of rītī poetry and began addressing themes such as nationalism and social reform. A defining work of this period is Maithilisharan Gupt's 1912 poem Bhārat-Bhāratī, which exemplifies the nationalist sentiment of the time. Dwivedi-era introduced didactic themes that shaped the discourse of Hindi literature through the second and third decades of the 20th century.Schomer, Karine (1983), p.6-7
Simultaneously, a younger generation of poets emerged on the fringes of the literary establishment, rejecting both the ideal prosaic moral earnestness of Dwivedi-era poetry and the narrow scope of rītī traditions. Their reaction against earlier styles and themes led to a revolution in poetic sensibility, ultimately giving rise to the Chhayavad yug.Schomer, Karine (1983), p.7-8Rubin, David (1998), p-12
Hazari Prasad Dwivedi asserted that Chāyāvād stemmed from an inward orientation of the mind and a steadfast belief in the changing human condition. The poets of this era were endowed with exceptional sensitivity and keen awareness of social disparities and discord. Stylistically, they were markedly distinct from their predecessors, focusing primarily on subjectivity. By 1920, Khadi Boli poetry still emphasized themes, but subsequently, the poet's own emotions and sentiments took precedence. The significance of the theme itself became secondary, while the poet's inner resonance with it became paramount.Sharan, Deenanath (1958), p.08
Namwar Singh wrote:
Nand Dulare Bajpai defined Chāyāvād as the subtle yet manifest beauty of nature imbued with a spiritual aura, offering a universally accepted explanation of the movement.
Mahadevi Varma viewed the philosophy of Chhayavad as rooted in Neo-Vedanta (sarvātmavād) and identified nature as its medium. She believed this poetry established a profound emotional bond with nature, evoking universal empathy and unity with all elements of the world. She regarded mysticism as a natural progression of Chāyāvād.Sharan, Deenanath (1958), p.12
Sumitranandan Pant, in a distinctly poetic manner, observed that the spontaneous emergence of poetic sensibilities from diverse directions eventually coalesced into the epoch-defining Chhayavad.Jain, Nirmala (1971), p.125 "चारों दिशाओं से स्वतंत्र रूप से नई काव्य-चेतना की धाराएँ बहकर छायावाद के युगचरितमानस में संचित हुईं।"
Another key theme is the idealization of love and the romantic quest for the eternal, most prominent in the poems of Mahadevi. She frequently portrayed love as a divine force, representing the ideal of untainted beauty and connection, transcending the physical realm.Ritter, Valerie (2011), p.230-240Green, Sarah Virginia Houston (2008), p.318-323
Spirituality and mysticism are also prevalent themes, with an emphasis on the search for truth, self-realization, and the connection between the individual and the divine. The movement was also marked by an engagement with the Existentialism. Poets explored the duality of existence, such as life and death, material and spiritual worlds, and the transient nature of time, as evident in works of like Saroj Smriti, Sneh nirjhar (Nirala), and Aansu (Prasad). This theme is often reflected through melancholic expressions, contemplating the impermanence of life and the inevitability of death.Priyanka, Prachi (2022), p.124-125Chishti, Seema (12 April 2020)
He had a deep interest in religion, history, archaeology, and gardening. Music was a lifelong inclination, and he appreciated both classical forms and lighter styles. His works often include love in its diverse forms, the profound exploration of pain and anguish, the complexities of the human condition, the pursuit of spiritual ideals, and the examination of historical and mythological narratives—elements that are evident in both his poetry and prose.Singh, Rajendra (1982), pp.24-30
He revolutionized Hindi poetry by pioneering the use of free verse. Nirala's poetry illustrated a profound connection with the living spirits of nature. His mystical poems, rich with the devotion of medieval Bhakti poetry, explored nature within a metaphysical framework that aligned with his Advaita beliefs. Themes of minority subjectivity, social critique, and social upliftment also appeared frequently in his writings.Rubin, David (1976), pp.127-130
His works showcase a blend of innovation and emotional depth, marked by free verse and prose poems. Renowned for his vivid imagery, rhythmic variety, and charm, his contributions extend beyond poetry, highlighting his brilliance as a prose stylist, essayist, and critic.Mukhopadhyaya, Debabrata (1969), pp.21-24
Her unique blend of emotional intensity, lyrical simplicity, and evocative imagery, along with her contributions as a translator and scholar, solidified her position as a leading figure of the Chhayavad movement. Her poetry, along with her work towards social upliftment and women's education, were depicted in her writings. These works greatly influenced both readers and critics.Schomer, Karine (1983), pp.158-185
Ramdhari Singh 'Dinkar', widely regarded as a poet of rebellion, with his poetry often exuding heroic sentiment, he initially composed in the Chāyāvād style and is frequently cited as a major figure of the Chāyāvādottar period—the transitional phase between Chāyāvād and Uttar-Chāyāvād (Post-Chāyāvāda). His later work, based on the celestial nymph Urvashi, also embodies the sensibilities of Chāyāvād.Damodar, Shrihari (1975)
Harivansh Rai Bachchan began his literary career under the influence of Chāyāvāda and gradually emerged as a prominent poet and writer of the Nayī Kavitā literary movement. In the later stages of his career, he became increasingly critical of Chāyāvād and became associated with other literary currents such as Pragativād.Castaing, Anne (2012)
Makhanlal Chaturvedi was an Indian poet, essayist, and journalist noted for his role in the Indian independence movement and his contribution to Chāyāvād. He received the first Sahitya Akademi Award in Hindi for Him Taraṅginī (1955).Kalbhor, Gopinath
Ramkumar Verma, known for his historical one-act plays and poetry collections. His works reflect themes of sacrifice, love, service, and humanity, influenced by Gandhian ideals.George, K.M. (1995)
Pandit Narendra Sharma started his career as a poet and towards the 1940s, he contributed lyrics to Hindi cinema and is widely recognized for his work in the Bollywood.Sukumaran, Shradha
|
|
