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Celibacy (from Latin caelibatus) is the state of voluntarily being unmarried, sexually abstinent, or both. It is often in association with the role of a religious official or devotee. In its narrow sense, the term celibacy is applied only to those for whom the unmarried state is the result of a sacred vow, act of renunciation, or religious conviction. In a wider sense, it is commonly understood to only mean abstinence from sexual activity.
Celibacy has existed in one form or another throughout history, in virtually all the major religions of the world, and views on it have varied. The Hindu concept of brahmacharya encourages celibacy during adolescence, to allow one to focus on learning, and in later years, as a way of attaining spiritual liberation. Jainism, on the other hand, preached complete celibacy even for young monks and considered celibacy to be an essential behavior to attain moksha. Buddhism is similar to Jainism in this respect. There were, however, significant cultural differences in the various areas where Buddhism spread, which affected the local attitudes toward celibacy. A somewhat similar situation existed in Japan, where the Shinto tradition also opposed celibacy. In most native African and Native American religious traditions, celibacy has been viewed negatively as well, although there were exceptions like periodic celibacy practiced by some Mesoamerican warriors.
The Ancient Rome viewed celibacy as an aberration and legislated fiscal penalties against it, with the exception of the , who took a 30-year vow of chastity in order to devote themselves to the study and correct observance of state rituals. In Christianity, celibacy means the promise to live either virginal or celibate in the future. Such a vow of celibacy has been normal for some centuries for Catholic Church priests, Catholic and Eastern Orthodox monks, and nuns. In addition, a promise or vow of celibacy may be made in the Anglican Communion and some Protestant churches or communities, such as the Shakers; for members of and religious congregations; and for , consecrated virgins, and . Judaism and Islam have denounced celibacy, as both religions emphasize marriage and family life; Berachot 10a; Kiddushin 29b; Maimonides, Ishut 15:2; Shulchan Aruch, Even Hae'ezer 1:3 however, the priests of the Essenes, a Jewish sect during the Second Temple period, practised celibacy. It is reported in one famous hadith that the Islamic prophet Muhammad explicitly rejected the practice of celibacy.
A. W. Richard Sipe, while focusing on the topic of celibacy in Catholicism, states that "the most commonly assumed definition of celibate is simply an unmarried or single person, and celibacy is perceived as synonymous with sexual abstinence or restraint." Sipe adds that even in the relatively uniform milieu of Catholic priests in the United States there seems to be "simply no clear operational definition of celibacy". Elizabeth Abbott commented on the terminology in her A History of Celibacy (2001) writing that she "drafted a definition of celibacy that discarded the rigidly pedantic and unhelpful distinctions between celibacy, chastity, and virginity".
The concept of "new" celibacy was introduced by Gabrielle Brown in her 1980 book The New Celibacy. In a revised version (1989) of her book, she claims abstinence to be "a response on the outside to what's going on, and celibacy is a response from the inside". According to her definition, celibacy (even short-term celibacy that is pursued for non-religious reasons) is much more than not having sex. It is more intentional than abstinence, and its goal is personal growth and empowerment. Although Brown repeatedly states that celibacy is a matter of choice, she clearly suggests that those who do not choose this route are somehow missing out. This new perspective on celibacy is echoed by several authors, including Elizabeth Abbott, Wendy Keller, and Wendy Shalit.Abbott, Elizabeth. A History of Celibacy. Cambridge, Massachusetts: DaCapo, 1999; Keller, Wendy. The Cult of the Born-Again Virgin: How Single Women Can Reclaim Their Sexual Power. Deerfield Beach, Florida: Health Communications, 1999; Shalit, Wendy. A Return to Modesty: Discovering the Lost Virtue. New York: Touchstone, 2000.
Gautama, later known as the Buddha, is known for his renunciation of his wife, Princess Yasodharā, and son, Rahula. In order to pursue an ascetic life, he needed to renounce aspects of the impermanent world, including his wife and son. Later on both his wife and son joined the ascetic community and are mentioned in the Buddhist texts to have become enlightened.
Furthermore, Christ, when his disciples suggest it is "better not to marry," stated "Not everyone can accept this word, but only those to whom it has been given. For there are eunuchs who have been so from birth, and there are eunuchs who have been made eunuchs by others, and there are eunuchs who have made themselves eunuchs for the sake of the kingdom of heaven. Let anyone accept this who can" (Matthew 19:10-12, NRSV). While eunuchs were not generally celibate, over subsequent centuries this statement has come to be interpreted as referring to celibacy.
Paul the Apostle emphasized the importance of overcoming the desires of the flesh and saw the state of celibacy being superior to that of marriage. Paul made parallels between the relations between spouses and God's relationship with the church. "Husbands, love your wives even as Christ loved the church. Husbands should love their wives as their own bodies" (Ephesians 5:25–28). Paul himself was celibate and said that his wish was "that all of you were as I am" (1 Corinthians 7:7). In fact, this entire chapter endorses celibacy while also clarifying that marriage is also acceptable.
The early Christians lived in the belief that the end of the world would soon come upon them, and saw no point in planning new families and having children. According to Chadwick, this was why Paul encouraged both celibate and marital lifestyles among the members of the Corinthian congregation, regarding celibacy as the preferable of the two.
In the counsels of perfection (evangelical counsels), which include chastity alongside poverty and obedience, Jesus is said to have "given the rule of the higher life, founded upon his own most perfect life", for those who seek "the highest perfection" and feel "called to follow Christ in this way"—i.e. through such "exceptional sacrifices".Vernon Staley, The Catholic Religion, A Manual for Instruction for Members of the Anglican Communion, A. R. Mowbrey & Co., 1917, p. 248
A number of early were women or girls who had given themselves to Christ in perpetual virginity, such as Saint Agnes and Saint Lucy. According to most Christian thought, the first sacred virgin was Mary, the mother of Jesus, who was consecrated by the Holy Spirit during the Annunciation. Tradition also has it that the Apostle Matthew consecrated virgins. In the Catholic Church and the Orthodox churches, a consecrated virgin is a woman who has been consecrated by the church to a life of perpetual virginity in the service of the church.
Over time, the model of Anthony and other hermits attracted many followers, who lived alone in the desert or in small groups. They chose a life of extreme asceticism, renouncing all the pleasures of the senses, rich food, baths, rest, and anything that made them comfortable.Riddle 2008, p. 43. Thousands joined them in the desert, mostly men but also a handful of women. Religious seekers also began going to the desert seeking advice and counsel from the early Desert Fathers. By the time of Anthony's death, there were so many men and women living in the desert in celibacy that it was described as "a city" by Anthony's biographer.
The first Conciliar document on clerical celibacy of the Western Church (Synod of Elvira, can. xxxiii) states that the discipline of celibacy is to refrain from the use of marriage, i.e. refrain from having carnal contact with one's spouse.Roman Cholij Clerical Celibacy in East and West. Gracewing 1990; 2nd Rev. ed., p. 36.
According to the later Jerome (420), celibacy is a moral virtue, consisting of living in the flesh, but outside the flesh, and so being not corrupted by it ( vivere in carne praeter carnem). Celibacy excludes not only libidinous acts, but also sinful thoughts or desires of the flesh.art. Celibacy, clerical, in Dictionary of Moral Theology. Compiled under the Direction of H. E. Cardinal Roberti. Ed. Mgr. Pietro Palazzini. London: Burns & Oates Publishers of the Holy See 1962; Jerome referred to marriage prohibition for priests when he claimed in Against Jovinianus that Peter and the other apostles had been married before they were called, but subsequently gave up their marital relations. Aduersus Jovinianum I, 7. 26 (PL 23, 230C; 256C).
In the Catholic, Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox traditions, bishops are required to be celibate." Orthodox Priests Have the Option." The Washington Post. Retrieved 23 July 2021 In the Eastern Catholic and Orthodox traditions, priests and deacons are allowed to be married, yet have to remain celibate if they are unmarried at the time of ordination." Of Marriage and Orthodox Priests - Wesley J. Smith." firstthings.com. Retrieved 23 July 2021.
In the early 3rd century, the Canons of the Apostolic Constitutions decreed that only lower clerics might still marry after their ordination, but marriage of bishops, priests, and deacons were not allowed.Constitutiones apostolorum 8, 47, 26 (SC 336, 280, 83f.) τῶν εις κληρον παρελθόντων ἄγαμον κελεύομεν Βουλομένους γαμεῖν αναγνώστας και ψαλτας μόνους.Socrates Scholasticus, Historia ealesiastica I, 11, 5 (GCS Socr. 42, i9f.)Stefan Heid (2000), Celibacy in the Early Church, p. 170
The Protestant Reformation rejected celibate life and sexual continence for preachers. Protestant celibate communities, including religious orders exist, especially from Lutheran and Anglican backgrounds. Anglican Religious Life Yearbook, Section 2: Dispersed celibate Religious Communität Christusbruderschaft Selbitz, Aus der Regel The Daughters of Mary is a Lutheran religious order of nuns who have taken vows of chastity, poverty, and obedience. (2018). 9780295742427, University of Washington Press. ISBN 9780295742427 A few minor Christian sects advocate celibacy as a better way of life. These groups included the Shakers, the Harmony Society and the Ephrata Cloister. Celibacy. Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2009. Archived 31 October 2009.
Many evangelicals prefer the term "abstinence" to "celibacy". Assuming everyone will marry, they focus their discussion on refraining from premarital sex and focusing on the joys of a future marriage. But some evangelicals, particularly older singles, desire a positive message of celibacy that moves beyond the "wait until marriage" message of abstinence campaigns. They seek a new understanding of celibacy that is focused on God rather than a future marriage or a lifelong vow to the Church.Colon, Christine, and Bonnie Field. Singled Out: Why Celibacy Must Be Reinvented in Today's Church. Grand Rapids, MI: Brazos, 2009.
There are also many Pentecostal churches which practice celibate ministry. For instance, the full-time ministers of the Pentecostal Mission are celibate and generally single. Married couples who enter full-time ministry may become celibate and could be sent to different locations.
Statutes forbidding clergy from having wives were written beginning with the Council of Elvira (306) but these early statutes were not universal and were often defied by clerics and then retracted by hierarchy.New Catholic Encyclopedia, vol 3, Catholic University of America: Washington, D.C. 1967, p. 366 The Synod of Gangra (345) condemned a false asceticism whereby worshipers boycotted celebrations presided over by married clergy.The HarperCollins Encyclopedia of Catholicism, 1995, ed. O'Brien, Richard, NY: Harper Collins Publishers, p. 290 The Apostolic Constitutions () excommunicated a priest or bishop who left his wife "under the pretense of piety" (Mansi, 1:51).New Catholic Encyclopedia, vol 3, Catholic University of America: Washington, D.C. 1967 p. 370
"A famous letter of Synesius of Cyrene () is evidence both for the respecting of personal decision in the matter and for contemporary appreciation of celibacy. For priests and deacons clerical marriage continued to be in vogue".New Catholic Encyclopedia, vol 3, Catholic University of America: Washington, D.C. 1967, p. 323
"The Second Lateran Council (1139) seems to have enacted the first written law making sacred orders a direct impediment to marriage for the universal Church." Celibacy was first required of some clerics in 1123 at the First Lateran Council. Because clerics resisted it, the celibacy mandate was restated at the Second Lateran Council (1139) and the Council of Trent (1545–64).New Advent, "Celibacy of the Clergy" In places, coercion and enslavement of clerical wives and children was apparently involved in the enforcement of the law.The Catholic Encyclopedia vol 3, New York: The Encyclopedia Press, Inc., 486 "The earliest decree in which the children of were declared to be slaves and never to be enfranchised freed seems to have been a canon of the Synod of Pavia in 1018. Similar penalties were promulgated against wives and concubines (see the Synod of Melfi, 1189 can. xii), who by the very fact of their unlawful connexion with a subdeacon or clerk of higher rank became liable to be seized by the over-lord".
In the Roman Catholic Church, the Twelve Apostles are considered to have been the first priests and of the Church. Some say the call to be for the sake of Heaven in Matthew 19 was a call to be sexually continent and that this developed into celibacy for priests as the successors of the apostles. Others see the call to be sexually continent in Matthew 19 to be a caution for men who were too readily divorcing and remarrying.
The view of the Church is that celibacy is a reflection of life in Heaven, a source of detachment from the material world which aids in one's relationship with God. Celibacy is designed to "consecrate themselves with undivided heart to the Lord and to "the affairs of the Lord, they give themselves entirely to God and to men. It is a sign of this new life to the service of which the Church's minister is consecrated; accepted with a joyous heart celibacy radiantly proclaims the Reign of God." In contrast, Saint Peter, whom the Church considers its first Pope, was married given that he had a mother-in-law whom Christ healed (Matthew 8). But some argue that Peter was a widower, due to the fact that this passage does not mention his wife, and that his mother-in-law is the one who serves Christ and the apostles after she is healed. Furthermore, Peter himself states: "Then Peter spoke up, 'We have left everything to follow you!' 'Truly I tell you', Jesus replied, 'no one who has left home or brothers or sisters or mother or father or children or fields for me and the gospel will fail to receive a hundred times as much'" (Mark 10,28–30).
Usually, only celibate men are ordained as priests in the Latin Church. Married clergy who have converted from other Christian denominations can be ordained Roman Catholic priests without becoming celibate. A priest who is married at time of ordination continues to be married, with full obligation to all expectations of the marriage, but cannot remarry and remain in the practice of the priesthood. Priestly celibacy is not doctrine of the Church (such as the belief in the Assumption of Mary) but a matter of discipline, like the use of the vernacular (local) language in Mass or Lenten fasting and abstinence. As such, it can theoretically change at any time though it still must be obeyed by Catholics until the change were to take place. The Eastern Catholic Churches ordain both celibate and married men. However, in both the East and the West, bishops are chosen from among those who are celibate. In Ireland, several priests have fathered children, the two most prominent being bishop Eamonn Casey and Michael Cleary.
The classical heritage flourished throughout the Middle Ages in both the Byzantine Greek East and the Latin West. When discerning the population of Christendom in medieval Europe during the Middle Ages, Will Durant, referring to Plato's ideal community, stated on the oratores (clergy):
"The clergy, like Plato's guardians, were placed in authority not by the suffrages of the people, but by their talent as shown in ecclesiastical studies and administration, by their disposition to a life of meditation and simplicity, and (perhaps it should be added) by the influence of their relatives with the powers of state and church. In the latter half of the period in which they ruled AD 800, the clergy were as free from family cares as even Plato could desire; and in some cases it would seem they enjoyed no little of the reproductive freedom accorded to the guardians. Celibacy was part of the psychological structure of the power of the clergy; for on the one hand they were unimpeded by the narrowing egoism of the family, and on the other their apparent superiority to the call of the flesh added to the awe in which lay sinners held them and to the readiness of these sinners to bare their lives in the confessional."
With respect to clerical celibacy, Richard P. O'Brien stated in 1995, that in his opinion, "greater understanding of human psychology has led to questions regarding the impact of celibacy on the human development of the clergy. The realization that many non-European countries view celibacy negatively has prompted questions concerning the value of retaining celibacy as an absolute and universal requirement for ordained ministry in the Roman Catholic Church".The HarperCollins Encyclopedia of Catholicism, 1995, ed. O'Brien, Richard, NY: Harper Collins Publishers, p. 291
In 2014, the American Association of Christian Counselors amended its code of ethics to eliminate the promotion of conversion therapy for homosexuals and encouraged them to be celibate instead.
In the religious movement of Brahma Kumaris, celibacy is also promoted for peace and to defeat power of lust.Babb, Lawrence A. (1987). Redemptive Encounters: Three Modern Styles in the Hindu Tradition (Comparative Studies in Religion and Society). Oxford University Press. . "Sexual intercourse is unnecessary for reproduction because the souls that enter the world during the first half of the Cycle are in possession of a special yogic power (yog bal) by which they conceive children"Barrett, David V (2001). The New Believers. Cassell & Co. pp. 265. .
Celibacy appears as a peculiarity among some Sufis.
Celibacy was practiced by women saints in Sufism. Celibacy was debated along with women's roles in Sufism in medieval times.
Celibacy, poverty, meditation, and mysticism within an ascetic context along with worship centered around saints' tombs were promoted by the Qadiri Sufi order among Hui Muslims in China. In China, unlike other Muslim sects, the leaders (Shaikhs) of the Qadiriyya Sufi order are celibate. Unlike other Sufi orders in China, the leadership within the order is not a hereditary position, rather, one of the disciples of the celibate Shaikh is chosen by the Shaikh to succeed him. The 92-year-old celibate Shaikh Yang Shijun was the leader of the Qadiriya order in China as of 1998.
Celibacy is practiced by Haydariya Sufi dervishes.
The man who has a wife is far above him who lives in continence
Pythagoreanism was the system of esoteric and metaphysics beliefs held by Pythagoras and his followers. Pythagorean thinking was dominated by a profoundly mystical view of the world. The Pythagorean code further restricted his members from eating meat, fish, and beans which they practised for religious, ethical and ascetic reasons, in particular the idea of metempsychosis – the transmigration of souls into the bodies of other animals.Bertrand Russell, History of Western Philosophy "Pythagoras himself established a small community that set a premium on study, vegetarianism, and sexual restraint or abstinence. Later philosophers believed that celibacy would be conducive to the detachment and equilibrium required by the philosopher's calling.""celibacy", The New Encyclopædia Britannica, 15th ed., vol 3, Chicago, 2007.
Women who become sworn virgins make a vow of celibacy, and are allowed to take on the social role of men: inheriting land, wearing male clothing, etc.
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