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Balkh is a town in the Balkh Province of Afghanistan. It is located approximately to the northwest of the provincial capital city Mazar-i-Sharif and approximately to the south of the Amu Darya and the Afghanistan–Uzbekistan border. In 2021–2022, the National Statistics and Information Authority reported that the town had 138,594 residents. Listed as the eighth largest settlement in the country, unofficial 2024 estimates set its population at around 114,883 people.
Historically, the site of present-day Balkh was held in considerably high regard due to its religious and political significance in Ariana. A hub of Zoroastrianism and Buddhism, the ancient city was also known to the Ancient Iran as Zariaspa and to the Ancient Greece as Bactra, giving its name to Bactria. As such, it was famously known as the capital of Bactria or Tokharistan. The Italian explorer and writer Marco Polo described Balkh as "a noble city and a great seat of learning" prior to the Mongol conquests. Most of the town now consists of ruined buildings, situated some from the right bank of the seasonally flowing Balkh River, at an elevation of about .
While it is one of Afghanistan's ethnically diverse settlements, Tajiks account for the majority of Balkh's populace and have continuously inhabited the site for millennia.[1] Britannica Online Encyclopedia The main language of the town is Dari, which is spoken by a significant majority. Balkh's surrounding region is particularly known for its archeological sites, which attest the presence of many different civilizations that influenced the town's society in various eras. The Belgian-French explorer and spiritualist Alexandra David-Néel associated Balkh with Shambhala, a mythical kingdom that features prominently in ancient Tibetan Buddhism, and also offered the Persian Sham-i-Bala () as an etymology of its name.David-Néel, A. Les Nouvelles littéraires;1954, p.1 In a similar vein, the British author John G. Bennett, whose academic focus was on the teachings of the Armenian-Greek mystic George Gurdjieff, speculated in his works that Shambhala may have been a Bactrian Sun temple called Shams-i-Balkh, taking note of the Afghan author and mystic Idries Shah as the source of this suggestion. Bennett notes Idries Shah as the source of the suggestion.
The Bactrian language name of the city was βαχλο, i.e. Bakhlo. In Middle Persian texts, it was named Baxl, i.e. Bakhl (). The name of the province or country also appears in the Old Persian inscriptions (B.h.i 16; Dar Pers e.16; Nr. a.23) as Bāxtri, i.e. Bakhtri (). It is written in the Avesta as Bāxδi () . From this came the intermediate form Bāxli, Sanskrit Bahlīka (also Bahlikas) for "Bactrian", and by transposition the modern Persian Balx, i.e. Balkh, and Armenian Bahl. This same root entered the Greek language as Baktra (Ancient Greek: Βάκτρα), often written in the form Bactra.
An earlier name for Balkh or a term for part of the city was Zariaspa (Ancient Greek: Ζαρίασπα), which may derive from the important Zoroastrian fire temple Azar-i-Asp or from a Median language name *Ζaryāspa- meaning "having gold-coloured horses"..
The nickname of Balkh is "the Mother of All Cities".
during the Hellenistic Age|275x275px]]Balkh was earlier considered to be the first city to which the ancient Iranian peoples peoples moved from north of the Amu Darya (also known as the Oxus in Greek), between 2000 and 1500 BC.Nancy Hatch Dupree, An Historical Guide to Afghanistan, 1977, Kabul, Afghanistan However it was only recently that archaeological remains before 500 BC were found by French archaeologists led by Johanna Lhullier and Julio Bendezu-Sarmiento in the section called Bala Hissar, which is the citadel of the site. They dated this first settlement to the Early Iron Age (Yaz culture period, -1000 BC) continuing until pre-Achaemenid times (Yaz culture period, c. 1000–540 BC).Lhuillier, Johanna, Julio Bendezu-Sarmiento, & Philippe Marquis, (2021). "Ancient Bactra: New Data on the Iron Age Occupation of the Bactra Oasis" , in Archaeology of Central Asia during the 1st millennium BC, from the beginning of the Iron Age to the Hellenistic period: Proceedings from the Workshop held at 10th ICAANE. Bala Hissar is located at the north of the site and is oval in shape, having an area of around 1,500 by 1,000 m2 (c. 150 hectares) and to the south is the lower town.Young, Rodney S., (1955). "The South Wall of Balkh-Bactra", American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 59, No. 4 (October 1955), The University of Chicago Press, p. 267. Another mound of the site, known as Tepe Zargaran, and the Northern Fortification Wall of Balkh, were occupied at a large extension in Achaemenid times (Yaz culture period, c. 540-330 BC).
Since the Iranic people built one of their first kingdoms in Balkh, some scholars believe that it was from this area that different waves of Iranic tribes spread to north-east Iran and Seistan region. The changing climate has led to desertification since antiquity, when the region was very fertile. Its foundation is mythically ascribed to Keyumars, the first king of the world in Iranian folklore; and it is at least certain that, at a very early date, it was the rival of Ecbatana, Nineveh and Babylon. The city was traditionally a center of Zoroastrianism. The Greeks in Bactria and India. William Woodthorpe Tarn. 1st Edition, 1938; 2nd Updated Edition, 1951. 3rd Edition, updated with a Preface and a new bibliography by Frank Lee Holt. Ares Publishers, Inc., Chicago. 1984. (1984), pp. 114–115 and n. 1. For a long time the city and country was the central seat of the dualistic Zoroastrian religion, the founder of which, Zoroaster, died within the walls according to the Persian poet Firdowsi. Armenian sources state that the Arsacid dynasty of the Parthian Empire established its capital in Balkh. There is a long-standing tradition that an ancient shrine of Anahita was to be found here, a temple so rich it invited plunder.
Alexander the Great married Roxana of Bactria after killing the king of Balkh in the 4th century BC, and brought the Greek culture and religion to the region. The city was one of the capitals of the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom and was besieged for three years by the Seleucid Empire under king Antiochus III the Great. After the demise of the Greco-Bactrian kingdom, it was ruled by Indo-Scythians, Parthian Empire, Indo-Parthians, Kushan Empire, Indo-Sassanids, Kidarites, Hephthalite Empire and Sassanid Empire before the arrival of the Arabs.
The Chinese pilgrim Faxian (337-422 CE) traveled to the region in the early 5th century, and found Hinayana Buddhism prevalent in Shan Shan, Kucha, Kashgar, Osh, Udayana and Gandhara. Later, the Chinese monk Xuanzang (602–664 CE) visited Balkh in 630 CE, when it was a flourishing centre of Hinayana Buddhism. According to his memoirs, there were about a hundred Buddhist convents in the city or its vicinity at the time of his visit. There were 3,000 monks and a large number of stupas and other religious monuments. Xuanzang also remarked that Buddhism was widely practiced by the Hunnish rulers of Balkh, who were descended from Indian royal stock. Buddhism in Central Asia by Baij Nath Puri, Motilal Banarsi Dass Publishers, Page 130 During the 8th century, the Korean monk and traveler Hyecho (704–787 CE) recorded that even after the Arab invasion, the residents of Balkh continued to practice Buddhism and followed a Buddhist king. He noted that the king of Balkh at the time had fled to nearby Badakshan.
The most remarkable Buddhist monastery was the Nava Vihara ("New Temple"), which possessed a gigantic statue of Gautama Buddha. Located near the city of Balkh, it served as a pilgrimage centre for political leaders who came from far and wide to pay homage to it.Reinterpreting Islamic Historiography: Hārūn al-Rashīd and the narrative of the ʻAbbāsid caliphate by Tayeb El-Hibri published by Cambridge University Press, 1999 Page 8 , Shortly before the Arab conquest, the monastery became a Fire temple. A curious reference to this building is found in the writings of the geographer Ibn Hawqal, an Arab traveler of the 10th century, who describes Balkh as built of clay, with ramparts and six gates, and extending for half a parasang. He also mentions a castle and a mosque.
A large number of Sanskrit medical, pharmacological, and toxicological texts were translated into Arabic under the patronage of Khalid, the vizier of Al-Mansur. Khalid was the son of a chief priest of a Buddhist monastery. Some of the family were killed when the Arabs captured Balkh; others including Khalid survived by converting to Islam. They would later come to be known as the Barmakids of Baghdad.India, the Ancient Past: a history of the Indian sub-continent from c. 7000 BC to AD 1200 by Burjor Avari Edition: illustrated Published by Taylor & Francis. , Page 220.
Balkh's Jewish community was further noted in the Ghaznavids during the 11th century, when Jews were forced to maintain a garden for Mahmud of Ghazni and pay a Dhimmi of 500 Dirham. According to Jewish oral history, under Timur of the Timurid Empire, the Jews of Balkh were given a gated city quarter of their own to live in. (2025). 9781136873669, Taylor and Francis. ISBN 9781136873669
There was still a substantial Jewish community in Balkh as late as 1885, as attested by the British administrator Charles Yate following the Second Anglo-Afghan War: "a considerable colony of Jews, who have a separate quarter of the village to themselves, and appeared, so far as we could judge, to be fair-looking men with most unmistakably Jewish features." (2025). 9780691612072, Princeton University Press. ISBN 9780691612072
Hiwi al-Balkhi, a 9th-century Exegesis and Bible critic, was born in Balkh and is widely believed to have been a Bukharan Jews, at least Ethnic Jew, as some scholars have asserted that he was a practicing Gnosticism.
The Arab attacks had little effect on the normal ecclesiastical life in the monasteries or Balkh Buddhist population outside. Buddhism continued to flourish with their monasteries as the centres of Buddhist learning and training. Scholars, monks and pilgrims from China, India and Korea continued to visit this place. Several revolts were made against the Arab rule in Balkh.
The Arabs' control over Balkh did not last long as it soon came under the rule of a local prince, a zealous Buddhist called Nazak (or Nizak) Tarkhan. He expelled the Arabs from his territories in 670 or 671. He is said to have not only reprimanded the Chief Priest (Barmak) of Nava-Vihara but beheaded him for embracing Islam. As per another account, when Balkh was conquered by the Arabs, the head priest of the Nava-Vihara had gone to the capital and became a Muslim. This displeased the people of the Balkh. He was deposed and his son was placed in his position.
Nazak Tarkhan is also said to have murdered not only the Chief Priest but also his sons. Only a young son was saved. He was taken by his mother to Kashmir where he was given training in medicine, astronomy and other sciences. Later they returned to Balkh. Prof. Maqbool Ahmed observes "One is tempted to think that the family originated from Kashmir, for in time of distress, they took refuge in the Valley. Whatever it be, their Kashmiri origin is undoubted and this also explains the deep interest of the Barmaks, in later years, in Kashmir, for we know they were responsible for inviting several scholars and physicians from Kashmir to the Court of Abbasids." Prof. Maqbool also refers to the descriptions of Kashmir contained in the report prepared by the envoy of Yahya bin Barmak. He surmises that the envoy could have possibly visited Kashmir during the reign of Samgramapida II (797–801). Reference has been made to sages and arts.
The Arabs managed to bring Balkh under their control only in 715 AD, in spite of strong resistance offered by the Balkh people during the Umayyad period. Qutayba ibn Muslim al-Bahili, an Arab General was Governor of Khurasan and the east from 705 to 715. He established a firm hold over lands beyond the Oxus for the Arabs. He fought and killed Tarkhan Nizak in Tokharistan (Bactria) in 715. In the wake of Arab conquest, the resident monks of the Vihara were either killed or forced to abandon their faith. The Viharas were razed to the ground. Priceless treasures in the form of manuscripts in the libraries of monasteries were consigned to ashes. Presently, only the ancient wall of the town, which once encircled it, stands partially. Nava-Vihara stands in ruins, near Takhta-i-Rustam. In 726, the Umayyad governor Asad ibn Abdallah al-Qasri rebuilt Balkh and installed in it an Arab garrison, while in his second governorship, a decade later, he transferred the provincial capital there. The Umayyad period lasted until 747, when Abu Muslim captured it for the Abbasids (next Sunni Caliphate dynasty) during the Abbasid Revolution. The city remained in Abbasid hands until 861, when it was taken in 870 by the Saffarids captured it.
Samanid rule in Balkh lasted until 997, when their former subordinates, the Ghaznavids, captured it. In 1006, Balkh was captured by Karakhanids, but Ghaznavids recaptured it 1008. Finally, the Seljuks conquered Balkh in 1059. In 1115, it was occupied and looted by irregular Oghuz Turks. Between 1141 and 1142, Balkh was captured by Atsiz, Shah of Khwarezm, after the Seljuks were defeated by the Kara-Khitan at the Battle of Qatwan. Ahmad Sanjar decisively defeated a Ghurid dynasty army, commanded by Ala al-Din Husayn and he took him prisoner for two years before releasing him as a vassal of the Seljuks. The next year, he marched against rebellious Oghuz Turks from Khuttal and Tukharistan. But he was defeated twice and was captured after a second battle in Merv. The Oghuzs looted Khorasan after their victory.
Balkh was nominally ruled by Mahmud Khan, the former khan of Western Karakhanids, but the real power was held by Muayyid al-Din Ay Aba, amir of Nishabur for three years. Sanjar finally escaped from captivity and returned to Merv through Termez. He died in 1157 and control of Balkh passed to Mahmud Khan until his death in 1162. It was captured by Khwarezmshahs in 1162, by the Kara Khitans in 1165, by the Ghurids in 1198 and again by Khwarezmshahs in 1206.
Muhammad al-Idrisi, in the 12th century, speaks of its possessing a variety of educational establishments, and carrying on an active trade. There were several important commercial routes from the city, stretching as far east as India and China. The late 12th-century local chronicle The Merits of Balkh (Fada'il-i-Balkh), by Abu Bakr Abdullah al-Wa'iz al-Balkhi, states that a woman known only as the khatun (lady) of Davud, from 848 appointed governor of Balkh, had taken over from him with "particular responsibility for the city and people" while he was busy building himself an elaborate pleasure palace called Nawshǎd (New Joy).Arezou Azad: "Islam's forgotten scholars", History Today, Vol. 66, No. 10 (October 2016), p. 27.
It was not reconstructed until 1338. It was captured by Tamerlane in 1389 and its citadel was destroyed, but Shahrukh Mirza, his successor, rebuilt the citadel in 1407.
The Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan fruitlessly fought them there for several years in the 1640s. Nevertheless, Balkh was ruled by the Mughal Empire from 1641 and turned into a subah (imperial top-level province) in 1646 by Shah Jahan, only to be lost in 1647, just like the neighboring Badakhshan Subah. Balkh was the government seat of Aurangzeb in his youth. In 1736 it was conquered by Nader Shah. After his assassination, local Uzbek Hadji Khan declared the independence of Balkh in 1747, under the Maimana Khanate.
In 1751, Balkh was captured by Ahmad Shah Durrani of the Durrani Empire.
The area of Balkh was governed by the Uzbek Qataghan dynasty, with its capital in Khulm, for the majority of the early nineteenth century, and only nominally acknowledged Kabul's suzerainty.
In 1866, after a malaria outbreak during the flood season, Balkh lost its administrative status to the neighbouring city of Mazar-i-Sharif ( Mazār-e Šarīf), about southeast of Balkh.
The fort and citadel to the north-east were built well above the town on a barren mound and were walled and moated. There was, however, little left of them but the remains of a few pillars. The Green Mosque (), named for its green-tiled dome (see photograph top right corner) and said to be the tomb of the Khwaja Abu Nasr Parsa, had nothing but the arched entrance remaining of the former (, school).
The town was garrisoned as of 1911 by a few thousand irregulars ( kasidars), the regular troops of Afghan Turkestan being cantoned at Takhtapul, near Mazari Sharif. The gardens to the north-east contained a caravanserai that formed one side of a courtyard, which was shaded by a group of chenar trees Platanus.
A project of modernization was undertaken in 1934, in which eight streets were laid out, housing and bazaars built. Modern Balkh is a centre of the cotton industry, of the skins known commonly in the West as "Persian lamb" (Karakul), and for agricultural produce like almonds and melons.
The site and the museum have suffered from looting and uncontrolled digging during the 1990s civil war. After the Taliban's fall in 2001 some poor residents dug in an attempt to sell ancient treasures. The provisional Afghan government said in January 2002 that it had stopped the looting. On March 9, 2023, the Taliban-appointed Governor of Balkh, Mohammad Dawood, was killed in a bomb blast.
The mounds of ruins on the road to Mazar-e Sharif probably represent the site of a city yet older than those on which stands the modern Balkh.
The museum is also known as the Museum of the Blue Mosque, from the building it shares with a religious library. As well as exhibits from the ancient ruins of Balkh, the collection includes works of Islamic art including a 13th-century Quran, and examples of Afghan decorative and folk art.
/ref> During this time, the Qataghan dynasty also competed with Bukhara in interdynastic conflicts throughout the area. Only through the conquests of the Emirate of Kabul's Dost Mohammad Khan in the 1850s (see also; Afghan Conquest of Balkh), followed by those of Abdur Rahman Khan in 1888, did the region of "little Turkestan" to the south of the Amu Darya (also known as Oxus River) become a permanent part of Afghanistan. By 1885, Charles Yate reported that the city was "nothing but a vast ruin" and that there were no more than 500 houses, occupied mostly by "Afghan settlers" and with "very few Usbegs" (i.e. Uzbeks).
20th to 21st centuries
In 1911 Balkh comprised a settlement of about 500 houses of Afghan settlers, a colony of and a small bazaar set in the midst of a waste of ruins and acres of debris. Entering by the west ( Akcha) gate, one passed under three arches, in which the compilers recognized the remnants of the former Jama Masjid (, Friday Mosque). The outer walls, mostly in utter disrepair, were estimated about in perimeter. In the south-east, they were set high on a mound or rampart, which indicated a Mongol origin to the compilers.
Archaeological sites
Ancient Buddhist
The earlier Buddhist constructions have proved more durable than the Islamic buildings. The Top-Rustam is in diameter at the base and at the top, circular and about high. Four circular vaults are sunk in the interior and four passages have been pierced below from the outside, which probably lead to them. The base of the building is constructed of mudbrick about square and thick. The Takht-e Rustam is wedge-shaped in plan with uneven sides. It is apparently built of pisé mud (i.e. mud mixed with straw and puddled). It is possible that in these ruins we may recognize the Nava Vihara described by the Chinese traveller Xuanzang. There are the remains of many other topes (or ) in the neighbourhood. (2013). 9780199687053, Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199687053
Medieval Islamic
Numerous places of interest are to be seen today aside from the ancient ruins and fortifications:
Displays at the Balkh Museum
The museum was formerly the second largest museum in the country, but its collection has suffered from looting in recent times.
Notable people
Balkh had a major role in the development of the Persian language and literature. The early works of Persian literature were written by poets and writers who were originally from Balkh. Many famous Persian poets came from Balkh. Furthermore, the city was a cultural centre for science and had notable scientists working in or originating from that region.
Poets
Scientists
Monarchs and Rulers
Statesmen and Administrators
Religious figures
Henry Corbin (1993). 9780710304162, London; Kegan Paul International in association with Islamic Publications for The Institute of Ismaili Studies. ISBN 9780710304162 (2025). 9780199577491, Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199577491
See also
Notes
Further reading
(2013). 9780199687053, Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199687053
External links
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