Arctic

 ( Geography Of North America ) 

The Arctic (; . ) is the polar region of Earth that surrounds the North Pole, lying within the Arctic Circle. The Arctic region, from the IERS Reference Meridian travelling east, consists of parts of northern Norway (Nordland, Troms, Finnmark, Svalbard and Jan Mayen), northernmost Sweden (Västerbotten, Norrbotten and Lappland), northern Finland (North Ostrobothnia, Kainuu and Lappi), Russia (Murmansk Oblast, Siberia, Nenets Okrug, Novaya Zemlya), the United States (Alaska), Canada (Yukon, Northwest Territories, Nunavut), Danish Realm (Greenland), and northern Iceland (Grímsey and Kolbeinsey), along with the Arctic Ocean and adjacent seas.

Land within the Arctic region has seasonally varying cryosphere, with predominantly treeless permafrost under the tundra. Arctic seas contain seasonal sea ice in many places.

The Arctic region is a unique area among Earth's ecosystems. The cultures in the region and the Arctic indigenous peoples have adapted to its cold and extreme conditions. Life in the Arctic includes zooplankton and phytoplankton, fish and , birds, land animals, plants, and human societies. Arctic land is bordered by the subarctic.

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Definition and etymology The word Arctic comes from the Greek language word arktikos "near the Bear, northern"Liddell, Henry George and Scott, Robert. "Arktikos." A Greek-English Lexicon. Perseus Digital Library. and from the word arktos meaning "bear" for either to the constellation known as Ursa Major, the "Great Bear", which is prominent in the northern portion of the celestial sphere,Liddell, Henry George and Scott, Robert. "Arktos." A Greek-English Lexicon. Perseus Digital Library.

Ian Ridpath (2025). 9780718847814, James Clarke & Company. . ISBN 9780718847814

or the constellation Ursa Minor, the "Little Bear", which contains the Celestial pole (currently very near Polaris, the current north Pole Star, or North Star).

There are several definitions of what area is contained within the Arctic. The area can be defined as north of the Arctic Circle (about 66° 34'N), the approximate southern limit of the midnight sun and the polar night. Another definition of the Arctic, which is popular with ecology, is the region in the Northern Hemisphere where the average temperature for the warmest month (July) is below ; the northernmost tree line roughly follows the isotherm at the boundary of this region. "arctic." Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc. Retrieved 2 May 2009.

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Climate The climate of the Arctic region is characterized by cold winters and cool summers. Its precipitation mostly comes in the form of snow and is low, with most of the area receiving less than . High winds often stir up snow, creating the illusion of continuous snowfall. Average winter temperatures can go as low as , and the coldest recorded temperature is approximately . Coastal Arctic climates are moderated by oceanic influences, having generally warmer temperatures and heavier snowfalls than the colder and drier interior areas. The Arctic is affected by current Climate change, leading to climate change in the Arctic, including Arctic sea ice decline, diminished ice in the Greenland ice sheet, and Arctic methane emissions as the permafrost thaws. The melting of Greenland's ice sheet is linked to polar amplification.

Due to the poleward migration of the planet's isotherms (about per decade during the past 30 years as a consequence of global warming), the Arctic region (as defined by tree line and temperature) is currently shrinking. Perhaps the most alarming result of this is Arctic sea ice shrinkage. There is a large variance in predictions of Arctic sea ice loss, with models showing near-complete to complete loss in September from 2035 to sometime around 2067.

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Flora and fauna Arctic life is characterized by adaptation to short growing seasons with long periods of sunlight, and cold, dark, snow-covered winter conditions.

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Plants Arctic vegetation is composed of plants such as Subshrub, , , , and , which all grow relatively close to the ground, forming tundra. An example of a dwarf shrub is the bearberry. As one moves northward, the amount of warmth available for plant growth decreases considerably. In the northernmost areas, plants are at their metabolic limits, and small differences in the total amount of summer warmth make large differences in the amount of energy available for maintenance, growth, and reproduction. Colder summer temperatures cause the size, abundance, productivity, and variety of plants to decrease. Trees cannot grow in the Arctic, but in its warmest parts, shrubs are common and can reach in height; Cyperaceae, mosses and lichens can form thick layers. In the coldest parts of the Arctic, much of the ground is bare; non-vascular plants such as lichens and mosses predominate, along with a few scattered grasses and (like the Arctic poppy).

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Animals Herbivores on the tundra include the Arctic hare, lemming, muskox, and reindeer (caribou). They are preyed on by the snowy owl, Arctic fox, grizzly bear, and Arctic wolf. The polar bear is also a predator, though it prefers to hunt for marine life from the ice. There are also many birds and marine species endemic to the colder regions. Other terrestrial animals include , moose, Dall sheep, Stoat, and Arctic ground squirrels. Marine mammals include Pinniped, , and several species of — and also , , and Beluga whale.

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Natural resources There are copious natural resources in the Arctic (oil, gas, minerals, freshwater, fish, and, if the subarctic is included, forest) to which modern technology and the economic opening up of Russia have given significant new opportunities. The interest in the tourism industry is also on the increase.

The Arctic contains some of the last and most extensive continuous wilderness areas in the world, and its significance in preserving biodiversity and is considerable. The increasing presence of humans fragments vital habitats. The Arctic is particularly susceptible to the abrasion of groundcover and to the disturbance of the rare breeding grounds of the animals that are characteristic of the region. The Arctic also holds 1/5 of the Earth's water supply.

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Paleontology During the Cretaceous, the Arctic still had seasonal snows, though only a light dusting and not enough to permanently hinder plant growth. Animals such as the Chasmosaurus, Hypacrosaurus, Troodon, and Edmontosaurus may have all migrated north to take advantage of the summer growing season, and migrated south to warmer climes when winter came. A similar situation may also have been found amongst that lived in Antarctic regions, such as the Muttaburrasaurus of Australia.

However, others claim that dinosaurs lived year-round at very high latitudes, such as near the Colville River, which is now at about 70°  N but at the time (70 million years ago) was 10° further north.

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Indigenous population The earliest inhabitants of North America's central and eastern Arctic are referred to as the Arctic small tool tradition (AST) and existed . AST consisted of several Paleo-Eskimo cultures, including the Independence cultures and Pre-Dorset cultures.

John F. Hoffecker (2025). 9780813534695, Rutgers University Press. . ISBN 9780813534695

Gibbon, pp. 28–31 The Dorset culture (Inuktitut: Tuniit or Tunit) refers to the next inhabitants of central and eastern Arctic. The Dorset culture evolved because of technological and economic changes during 1050–550 BCE. With the exception of the Quebec / Labrador peninsula, the Dorset culture vanished around 1500 CE.Gibbon, pp. 216–217 Supported by genetic testing, evidence shows that descendants of the Dorset culture, known as the Sadlermiut, survived in Aivilik, Southampton and , until the beginning of the 20th century.

Robert McGhee (2025). 9780195183689, Oxford University Press. . ISBN 9780195183689

The Dorset / Thule people transition dates around the ninth–10th centuries CE. Scientists theorize that there may have been cross-contact between the two cultures with the sharing of technology, such as fashioning harpoon heads, or the Thule may have found Dorset remnants and adapted their ways with the predecessor culture.Gibbon, p. 218. The evidence suggested that Inuit descend from the Birnirk culture of Siberia, through the Thule culture expanded into northern Canada and Greenland, where they genetically and culturally completely replaced the Indigenous Dorset people sometime after 1300 CE. The question of why the Dorset disappeared so completely has led some to suggest that Thule invaders wiped out the Dorset people in "an example of prehistoric genocide."

By 1300 CE, the Inuit, present-day Arctic inhabitants and descendants of Thule culture, had settled in west Greenland and moved into east Greenland over the following century (Inughuit, Kalaallit and Tunumiit are modern Greenlandic Inuit groups descended from Thule). Over time, the Inuit have migrated throughout the Arctic regions of Eastern Russia, the United States, Canada, and Greenland.

Other Circumpolar North indigenous peoples include the Chukchi people, Evenks, Iñupiat, Khanty, Koryaks, Nenets, Sámi, Yukaghir people, Gwichʼin, and Yupik peoples.

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International cooperation and politics The eight Arctic nations (Canada, Kingdom of Denmark Greenland, Finland, Iceland, Norway, Sweden, Russia, and US) are all members of the Arctic Council, as are organizations representing six indigenous populations (The Aleut International Association, Arctic Athabaskan Council, Gwich'in Council International, Inuit Circumpolar Council, Russian Association of Indigenous Peoples of the North, and Saami Council). The council operates on a consensus basis, mostly dealing with environmental treaties and not addressing boundary or resource disputes.

Though Arctic policy priorities differ, every Arctic nation is concerned about sovereignty/defense, resource development, shipping routes, and environmental protection. Much work remains on regulatory agreements regarding shipping, tourism, and resource development in Arctic waters. Arctic shipping is subject to some regulatory control through the International Code for Ships Operating in Polar Waters, adopted by the International Maritime Organization on 1 January 2017 and applies to all ships in Arctic waters over 500 tonnes.

Research in the Arctic has long been a collaborative international effort, evidenced by the International Polar Year. The International Arctic Science Committee, hundreds of scientists and specialists of the Arctic Council, and the Barents Euro-Arctic Council are more examples of collaborative international Arctic research.

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Territorial claims While there are several ongoing territorial claims in the Arctic, no country owns the geographic North Pole or the region of the Arctic Ocean surrounding it. The surrounding six Arctic states that border the Arctic Ocean—Canada, the Kingdom of Denmark (with Greenland), Iceland, Norway, Russia, and the United States—are limited to a exclusive economic zone (EEZ) off their coasts. Two Arctic states (Finland and Sweden) do not have direct access to the Arctic Ocean.

Upon ratification of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, a country has ten years to make claims to an extended continental shelf beyond its 200 nautical mile zone. Due to this, Norway (which ratified the convention in 1996), Russia (ratified in 1997), Canada (ratified in 2003) and the Kingdom of Denmark (ratified in 2004) launched projects to establish claims that certain sectors of the Arctic seabed should belong to their territories.

On 2 August 2007, two Russian , MIR-1 and MIR-2, for the first time in history descended to the Arctic seabed beneath the North Pole and placed there a Russian flag made of rust-proof titanium alloys. The flag-placing, during Arktika 2007, generated commentary on and concern for a race for control of the Arctic's vast hydrocarbon resources.Yenikeyeff, S. M. and Fenton Krysiek, Timothy (August 2007). The Battle for the Next Energy Frontier: The Russian Polar Expedition and the Future of Arctic Hydrocarbons. Oxford Institute for Energy Studies.

Foreign ministers and other officials representing Canada, the Kingdom of Denmark, Norway, Russia, and the United States met in Ilulissat on 28 May 2008 at the Arctic Ocean Conference and announced the Ilulissat Declaration, blocking any "new comprehensive international legal regime to govern the Arctic Ocean," and pledging "the orderly settlement of any possible overlapping claims."

As of 2012, the Kingdom of Denmark is claiming the continental shelf based on the Lomonosov Ridge between Greenland and over the North Pole to the northern limit of the exclusive economic zone of Russia.

The Russian Federation is also claiming a large swath of seabed along the Lomonosov Ridge but, unlike Denmark, confined its claim to its side of the Arctic region. In August 2015, Russia made a supplementary submission for the expansion of the external borders of its continental shelf in the Arctic Ocean, asserting that the eastern part of the Lomonosov Ridge and the Mendeleyev Ridge is an extension of the continent. In August 2016, the UN Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf began to consider Russia's submission.

Canada claims the Northwest Passage as part of its internal waters belonging to Canada, while the United States and most maritime nations regards it as an international strait, which means that foreign vessels have right of transit passage.

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Exploration Since 1937, the larger portion of the Asian-side Arctic region has been extensively explored by Soviet and Russian crewed drifting ice stations. Between 1937 and 1991, 88 international polar crews established and occupied scientific settlements on the drift ice and were carried thousands of kilometers by the ice flow. Modern day scientists now rely more heavily on unmanned buoys and ice-tethered observatories than crewed stations for Arctic research and exploration

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Pollution The Arctic is comparatively clean, although there are certain ecologically difficult localized pollution problems that present a serious threat to people's health living around these pollution sources. Due to the prevailing worldwide sea and air currents, the Arctic area is the fallout region for long-range transport , and in some places, the concentrations exceed the levels of densely populated urban areas. An example of this is the phenomenon of Arctic haze, which is commonly blamed on long-range pollutants. Another example is with the bioaccumulation of PCBs (polychlorinated biphenyls) in Arctic wildlife and people.

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Preservation There have been many proposals to preserve the Arctic over the years. Most recently a group of states at the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development, on 21 June 2012, proposed protecting the Arctic, similar to the Antarctic Treaty System. The initial focus of the campaign will be a UN resolution creating a global sanctuary around the pole, and a ban on oil drilling and unsustainable fishing in the Arctic. Stars launch campaign to save the Arctic . Greenpeace (21 June 2012).

The Arctic has climate change rates that are amongst the highest in the world. Due to the major impacts to the region from climate change the near climate future of the region will be extremely different under all scenarios of warming.IPCC. Cross-Chapter Paper 6: Polar Regions. IPCC WGII Sixth Assessment Report. .

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Climate change The effects of climate change in the Arctic include rising temperatures, loss of sea ice, and melting of the Greenland ice sheet. Potential methane release from the region, especially through the thawing of permafrost and methane clathrates, is also a concern.Galera, L. A., Eckhardt, T., Beer, C., Pfeiffer, E.-M., & Knoblauch, C. (2023). "Ratio of in situ CO2 to CH4 production and its environmental controls in polygonal tundra soils of Samoylov Island, Northeastern Siberia". Journal of Geophysical Research: Biogeosciences Because of the amplified response of the Arctic to global warming, it is often seen as a leading indicator of global warming. The melting of Greenland's ice sheet is linked to polar amplification. Study links 2015 melting Greenland ice to faster Arctic warming 9 June 2016 University of Georgia

The Arctic region is especially vulnerable to the effects of any climate change, as has become apparent with the reduction of sea ice in recent years. predict much greater climate change in the Arctic than the global average,

resulting in significant international attention to the region. In particular, there are concerns that Arctic shrinkage, a consequence of melting glaciers and other ice in Greenland, could soon contribute to a substantial rise in sea levels worldwide.Grinberg, Emanuella (17 December 2008). "Ice melting across globe at accelerating rate, NASA says." CNN. Retrieved 30 March 2022

The current Arctic warming is leading to ancient carbon being released from thawing permafrost, leading to methane and carbon dioxide production by micro-organisms. Release of methane and carbon dioxide stored in permafrost could cause abrupt and severe global warming, as they are potent . Climate change is also predicted to have a large impact on tundra vegetation, causing an increase of shrubs, and having a negative impact on bryophytes and lichens.

Apart from concerns regarding the detrimental effects of warming in the Arctic, some potential opportunities have gained attention. The melting of the ice is making the Northwest Passage, shipping routes through the northernmost latitudes, more navigable, raising the possibility that the Arctic region will become a prime trade route. "Will ice melt open fabled Northwest Passage?" CNN. 29 August 2002. One harbinger of the opening navigability of the Arctic took place in the summer of 2016 when the Crystal Serenity successfully navigated the Northwest Passage, a first for a large cruise ship.

In addition, it is believed that the Arctic seabed may contain substantial oil fields which may become accessible if the ice covering them melts.Demos, Telis. "The great Arctic Circle oil rush." CNN. 8 August 2007. These factors have led to recent international debates as to which nations can claim sovereignty or ownership over the waters of the Arctic.Shaw, Rob. "New patrol ships will reassert northern sovereignty: PM". Victoria Times Colonist. 9 July 2007.Halpin, Tony. "Russia stakes its claim the North Pole in the underwater search for oil". The Times. 28 July 2007.

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Arctic waters

• Arctic Ocean
• Baffin Bay
• Beaufort Sea
• Barents Sea
• Bering Sea
• Bering Strait
• Chukchi Sea
• Davis Strait
• Denmark Strait
• East Siberian Sea
• Greenland Sea
• Hudson Bay
• Kara Sea
• Laptev Sea
• Nares Strait
• Norwegian Sea

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Arctic lands

Alaska	United States	State
Aleutian Islands	United States	American archipelago
Arkhangelsk Oblast	Russia	Federal subject
Arctic Archipelago	Canada	Canadian archipelago
Chukotka Autonomous Okrug	Russia	Federal subject
Big Diomede	Russia	Island
Diomede Island (Little)	United States	Island
Finnmark	Norway	Counties of Norway
Franz Josef Land	Russia	Federal subject archipelago
Greenland	Danish Realm	Autonomous country
Grímsey	Iceland	Island
Inuvik Region	Canada	Administrative region of the Northwest Territories
Jan Mayen	Norway	Island
Kainuu	Finland	Regions of Finland
Kitikmeot Region	Canada	Administrative region of Nunavut
Kivalliq Region	Canada	Administrative region of Nunavut
Kolbeinsey	Iceland	Island
Krasnoyarsk Krai	Russia	Federal subjects of Russia
Lappi	Finland	Regions of Finland
Lappland	Sweden	Provinces of Sweden
Murmansk Oblast	Russia	Federal subjects of Russia
Nenets Autonomous Okrug	Russia	Federal subjects of Russia
New Siberian Islands	Russia	Archipelago
Nordland	Norway	Counties of Norway
Norrbotten	Sweden	Provinces of Sweden
North Ostrobothnia	Finland	Regions of Finland
Northwest Territories	Canada	Territory of Canada
Novaya Zemlya	Russia	Federal subject archipelago
Nunavik	Canada	Northern part of Quebec
Nunatsiavut	Canada	Autonomous region of Labrador (Newfoundland and Labrador)
Nunavut	Canada	Territory of Canada
Qikiqtaaluk Region (Baffin)	Canada	Administrative region of Nunavut
Russian Arctic islands	Russia	Islands
Sápmi	Norway, Sweden, Finland, Russia	Fennoscandia region
Sakha Republic	Russia	Federal subject
Severnaya Zemlya	Russia	Federal subject archipelago
Siberia	Russia	Region
Svalbard	Norway	Governor of Svalbard archipelago
Troms	Norway	Counties of Norway
Västerbotten	Sweden	Provinces of Sweden
Wrangel Island	Russia	Zapovednik (nature reserve)
Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Okrug	Russia	Federal subjects of Russia
Yukon	Canada	Territory of Canada

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See also

• Arctic ecology
• Arctic Search and Rescue Agreement
• List of countries by northernmost point
• Arctic sanctuary
• Poverty in the Arctic
• Arctic Winter Games
• Winter City
• Global North

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Notes

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Bibliography

• Guy E. Gibbon (1998). 9780815307259, Taylor & Francis. . ISBN 9780815307259

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Further reading

• Brian W. Coad, James D. Reist. (2017). Marine Fishes of Arctic Canada. University of Toronto Press.
• "Global Security, Climate Change, and the Arctic" – 24-page special journal issue (Fall 2009), Swords and Ploughshares, Program in Arms Control, Disarmament, and International Security (ACDIS), University of Illinois
• GLOBIO Human Impact maps Report on human impacts on the Arctic
• Krupnik, Igor, Michael A. Lang, and Scott E. Miller, eds. Smithsonian at the Poles: Contributions to International Polar Year Science. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Scholarly Press, 2009.
• Konyshev, Valery & Sergunin, Alexander: The Arctic at the Crossroads of Geopolitical Interests Russian Politics and Law, 2012, Vol.50, No.2, pp. 34–54
• Käpylä, Juha & Mikkola, Harri: The Global Arctic: The Growing Arctic Interests of Russia, China, the United States and the European Union FIIA Briefing Paper 133, August 2013, The Finnish Institute of International Affairs.
• Konyshev, Valery & Sergunin, Alexander. The Arctic at the crossroads of geopolitical interests // Russian Politics and Law, 2012. Vol. 50, No. 2. p. 34–54
• Konyshev, Valery & Sergunin, Alexander: Is Russia a revisionist military power in the Arctic? Defense & Security Analysis, September 2014.
• Konyshev, Valery & Sergunin, Alexander. Russia in search of its Arctic strategy: between hard and soft power? Polar Journal, April 2014.
• McCannon, John. A History of the Arctic: Nature, Exploration and Exploitation. Reaktion Books and University of Chicago Press, 2012.

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External links

• Arctic Report Card
• Blossoming Arctic
• International Arctic Research Center

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