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Weaning is the process of gradually introducing an infant human or other mammal to what will be its adult diet while withdrawing the supply of its mother's milk. In the United Kingdom, weaning primarily refers to the introduction of solid foods at 6 months; in the United States, it primarily refers to stopping breastfeeding.
The process takes place only in mammals, as only mammals produce milk. The infant is considered to be fully weaned once it is no longer breastfeeding by any breast milk (or bottled Infant formula).
How and when to wean a human infant is controversial. The American Academy of Pediatrics recommends feeding a baby only breast milk for the first six months of its life. Many mothers find breastfeeding challenging, especially in countries where many mothers have to return to work relatively soon after the birth of their child.
The American Academy of Pediatrics, the World Health Organization, the National Health Service Choices UK, and the National Health & Medical Research Council in Australia recommend waiting until six months to introduce baby food. However, many baby food companies market their "stage 1" foods to children between four and six months old with the precaution that the food is meant to be consumed in addition to breast milk or formula and is just for "practice". These practice foods are generally soft and runny. Examples include mashed fruit and vegetables. Certain foods are recommended to be avoided. The United Kingdom's NHS recommends withholding foods including those "that contain wheat, gluten, nuts, peanuts, peanut products, seeds, liver, eggs, fish, shellfish, cows' milk and soft or unpasteurised cheese" until a baby is six months old, as they may cause food allergies or make the baby ill. "Solids: the first steps" . Retrieved 2010-06-28. However, recommendations such as these have been called into question by research that suggests early exposure to potential allergens does not increase the likelihood of allergies, and in some cases reduces it.
Evidence from clinical trials shows that nutrition education of family members about infant weaning practices probably has a positive effect on babies' weight and height at 12 months compared with conventional management of weaning.
No matter what age baby food is introduced, it is generally a very messy affair, as young children do not have the coordination to eat neatly. Coordination for using utensils properly and eating with dexterity takes years to develop. Many babies begin using utensils between 10 and 14 months, but most will not be able to feed themselves sufficiently well until about two or three years of age.
Scientifically, one can ask various questions; some of the most straightforwardly empirical include:
Considering biological measures of maturity, notably investigated by Katherine Ann Dettwyler, yields a range of ages from years to 7 years as the weaning age analogous to other primates – the "natural age of weaning"." A Natural Age of Weaning ", by Katherine Ann Dettwyler, brief version of chapter "A Time to Wean" in Breastfeeding: Biocultural Perspectives, pp. 39–73, ed. Patricia Stuart-Macadam and Katherine A. Dettwyler, 1995, This depends on the measure, for example: weaning in non-human primates is often associated with eruption of permanent teeth molars (humans: to 6 years); comparing duration of nursing to length of pregnancy (gestation time) yields a factor of about 6 in chimpanzees and gorillas (humans: months = 54 months = years); body weight may be compared to birth weight (quadrupling of birth weight yields about to years for humans; of adult weight yields 5 to 7 years for humans); and similarly for other measures.
Other studies are possible, as in psychological factors. For example, Barbara Rogoff has noted, citing a 1953 study by Whiting & Child, that the most distressing time to wean a child is at 13–18 months. After this peak, weaning becomes progressively easier and less distressing for the child, with "older children frequently weaning themselves".
In her study of pre-war Japanese society The Chrysanthemum and the Sword, Ruth Benedict documents that Japanese children were usually not weaned until soon before a new sibling arrives. However the government promoted eighth-month weaning which was reluctantly adopted by the middle-class in the benefit of the baby. The factor that the Japanese cuisine did not include cow's milk or special vegetables for children also favored late weaning.
For pet such as domestic dog or domestic cat, there are special puppy or kitten foods commercially available. Alternatively, if the pet owner feeds the parent animals home-made pet food, the young can be fed the same foods chopped into small pieces.
The use of these methods depends on farm management style, feed availability, condition and age of cow (dam), type of production and whether or not the calves are heifers. Results vary between farms, and methods are still being researched as studies have shown contradicting results on stress levels of calves from different methods of weaning.
Traditionally beef calves are weaned by abrupt separation, where the calves are separated from their dams and have no contact with each other, or by fence line weaning where the dam and calf have contact over a fence line. This has shown to cause high stress in both the dams and the calves. Both the dams and the young express high vocalization, reduced feed intake, reduced rumination, and an increased amount of time searching for each other as well as disrupting the social structure of the herd and of the calves. There is evidence that calves can undergo a form of depression post weaning, and have the potential to undergo illness that may need to be treated.
Two-step weaning is used to wean off beef calves from their dams over the space of a couple of weeks. With this method the calf is fitted with a nose flap that prevents suckling for a period of time, after which the calf is separated from the dam preventing contact. The nose flap does not limit the calf from performing any behaviors other than suckling; they are still able to drink and graze normally. Most research has shown that this method reduces the amount of stress that the calves endure. Studies show that prior to separation there is no change in feeding habits, social interaction to other members of the herd. Once the nose flap is removed and the calves are separated from the dams, there has been data showing less vocalization, less pacing and spent more time eating than calves that were weaned on a more traditional method.
Dairy calves are separated from their dam soon after they are born in most dairy operations. In some there is no contact between calf and cow for health related reasons, such as preventing bovine paratuberculosis (Johne's disease). The main purpose of separating dairy cows from their calves to allow collection and selling of milk. The calves are then fed colostrum from the dam for the first few days, and then milk replacer. Dairy calves do not have ab libitum milk like beef calves. By limiting the amount of milk the calves receive it caused the calves to consume more feed which leads to faster development of the rumen. Dairy calves are usually weaned off milk early, usually at 4 to 8 weeks of age.
Naturally, in the wild, the mother will begin weaning off the puppies because the puppies will start developing teeth which will irritate the mother when the puppies are suckling. This causes her to continually leave the puppies for longer periods of time, causing them to gradually be weaned off their mother. Wild dogs will also regurgitate food to transition the puppies to a new diet.
During this weaning process the puppies will learn from their litter-mates, and from their mother certain behaviors such as understanding dominance, and learning to reduce their biting habit and when to be submissive to others.
While weaning the puppies should be fed a high quality diet that will be fed to them as they grow post weaning. It may be helpful to moisten the food with water or milk replacer for the first while. By feeding the puppies this it causes the puppies to reduce how much they rely on their mother for food.
Twenty-four hours after birth, kittens can discriminate between their mother's teat and a foreign teat. Studies indicate that kittens have different preferences when being weaned and this is based on specific prenatal and postnatal exposure to various flavours. For example, kittens exposed to cheese flavor during pregnancy and the first week after birth oriented preferentially toward cheese-flavored chicken. The weaning process normally begins when kittens are around four weeks old, and is usually completed when they reach 8–10 weeks. It is important to remember that abrupt removal from the mother cat can have a negative effect on the kitten's health and socialization skills. Weaning kittens should be done when the kittens reach 4 weeks old. They should be placed in a separate area for a few hours at a time to reduce their dependence on the mother's milk and her overall presence. The kittens should be put in their own special area with a litter box, food and water bowls.
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