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A troubadour
/ref> ; ) was a composer and performer of Old Occitan lyric poetry during the High Middle Ages (1100–1350). Since the word troubadour is etymologically masculine, a female equivalent is usually called a trobairitz.
The troubadour school or tradition began in the late 11th century in Occitania, but it subsequently spread to the Italian and Iberian Peninsulas. Under the influence of the troubadours, related movements sprang up throughout Europe: the Minnesang in Germany, trovadorismo in Galicia and Portugal, and that of the trouvères in northern France. Dante Alighieri in his De vulgari eloquentia defined the troubadour lyric as fictio rethorica musicaque poita: Rhetoric, musical, and poetical fiction. After the "classical" period around the turn of the 13th century and a mid-century resurgence, the art of the troubadours declined in the 14th century and around the time of the Black Death (1348) and since died out.
The texts of troubadour songs deal mainly with themes of chivalry and courtly love. Most were Metaphysics, intellectual, and formulaic. Many were humorous or vulgar Satire. Works can be grouped into three styles: the trobar leu (light), trobar ric (rich), and trobar clus (closed). Likewise there were many , the most popular being the canso, but sirventes and were especially popular in the post-classical period.
The French word itself is borrowed from the Occitan trobador. It is the oblique case of the nominative trobaire "composer", related to trobar "to compose, to discuss, to invent" (Wace, Brut, editions I. Arnold, 3342). Trobar may come, in turn, from the hypothetical Late Latin * tropāre "to compose, to invent a poem" by regular phonetic change. This reconstructed form is based on the Latin root tropus, meaning a trope. In turn, the Latin word derives ultimately from Greek language τρόπος ( trópos), meaning "turn, manner".Chaytor, Part 1. Intervocal Latin shifted regularly to in Occitan (cf. Latin sapere → Occitan saber, French savoir "to know"). The Latin suffix -ātor, -ātōris explains the Occitan suffix, according to its declension and Diacritical mark: Gallo-Romance * tropātorJacques Allières, La formation de la langue française, coll. Que sais-je ?, éditions PUF, 1982, p. 49. 2) Imparisyllabiques β) Mots en -OR -ŌRE. → Occitan trobaire (subject case) and * tropātōreAllières 49. → Occitan trobador (oblique case).
There is an alternative theory to explain the meaning of trobar as "to compose, to discuss, to invent". It has the support of some Historian, specialists of literature, and Musicology to justify the troubadours' origins in Arabic Andalusian musical practices. According to them, the Arabic word ṭaraba "music" (from the triliteral root ṭ–r–b ط ر ب "provoke emotion, excitement, agitation; make music, entertain by singing" as in طرب أندلسي, ṭarab ʾandalusī) could partly be the Etymology of the verb trobar.Maria Rosa Menocal (1985), "Pride and Prejudice in Medieval Studies: European and Oriental", Hispanic Review, 53:1, 61–78. Another Arabic root had already been proposed before: ḍ–r–b (ض ر ب) "strike", by extension "play a musical instrument". Richard Lemay, « À propos de l'origine arabe de l'art des troubadours », Annales. Économies, sociétés, civilisations, vol. 21, n°5, 1966, p. 991 (French)
In archaic and classical troubadour poetry, the word is only used in a mocking sense, having more or less the meaning of "somebody who makes things up". Cercamon writes:
Peire d'Alvernha also begins his famous mockery of contemporary authors cantarai d'aquest trobadors,read the whole text here after which he proceeds to explain why none of them is worth anything. When referring to themselves seriously, troubadours almost invariably use the word chantaire ("singer").
Scholars like Ramón Menéndez Pidal stated that the troubadour tradition was created by William, who had been influenced by Moorish music and poetry while fighting with the Reconquista. However, George T. Beech states that there is only one documented battle that William fought in the Iberian Peninsula, and it occurred towards the end of his life. Beech adds that while the sources of William's inspirations are uncertain, he and his father did have individuals within their extended family with Iberian origins, and he may have been friendly with some Europeans who could speak the Arabic language. Regardless of William's personal involvement in the tradition's creation, Magda Bogin states that Arab poetry was likely one of several influences on European "courtly love poetry", citing Ibn Hazm's "The Ring of the Dove" as an example of a similar Arab tradition. (1995). 9780393009651, WW Norton. ISBN 9780393009651
Methods of transmission from Arab Iberia to the rest of Europe did exist, such as the Toledo School of Translators, though it only began translating major romances from Arabic into Latin in the second half of the thirteenth century, with Expurgation removed in deference to the Catholic Church. (1997). 9780415609845, Routledge. ISBN 9780415609845
Chronologically, however, this hypothesis is hard to sustain, as the forces believed to have given rise to the phenomenon arrived later than it, but the influence of Bernardine and Marian theology can be retained without the origins theory. This theory was advanced early by Eduard Wechssler and further by Dmitri Scheludko (who emphasises the Cluniac Reform) and Guido Errante. Mario Casella and Leo Spitzer have added "Augustinian" influence to it.
Picauensis uero dux ... miserias captiuitatis suae ... coram regibus et magnatis atque Christianis coetibus multotiens retulit rythmicis uersibus cum facetis modulationibus. (X.21)
Then the Poitevin duke ... the miseries of his captivity ... before kings, magnates, and Christian assemblies many times related with rhythmic verses and witty measures.Translation based on Marjorie Chibnall, in Bond, p. 240.
The classical period came to be seen by later generations, especially in the 14th and 15th centuries and outside of Occitania, as representing the high point of lyric poetry and models to be emulated. The language of the classic poets, its grammar and vocabulary, their style and themes, were the ideal to which poets of the troubadour revival in Toulouse (creation of the Consistori del Gay Saber in 1323) and their Catalan and Castilian contemporaries aspired. During the classical period the "rules" of poetic composition had first become standardised and written down, first by Raimon Vidal and then by Uc Faidit.
Later troubadours especially could belong to lower classes, ranging from the middle class of merchants and "burgers" (persons of urban standing) to tradesmen and others who worked with their hands. Salh d'Escola and Elias de Barjols were described as the sons of merchants and Elias Fonsalada was the son of a burger and jongleur. Perdigon was the son of a "poor fisherman" and Elias Cairel of a blacksmith. Arnaut de Mareuil is specified in his vida as coming from a poor family, but whether this family was poor by noble standards or materially is not apparent.
Many troubadours also possessed a clerical education. For some this was their springboard to composition, since their clerical education equipped them with an understanding of musical and poetic forms as well as vocal training. The vidas of the following troubadours note their clerical status: Aimeric de Belenoi, Folquet de Marselha (who became a bishop), Gui d'Ussel, Guillem Ramon de Gironella, Jofre de Foixà (who became an abbot), Peire de Bussignac, Peire Rogier, Raimon de Cornet, Uc Brunet, and Uc de Saint Circ.
At the height of troubadour poetry (the "classical period"), troubadours are often found attacking jongleurs and at least two small genres arose around the theme: the ensenhamen joglaresc and the sirventes joglaresc. These terms are debated, however, since the adjective joglaresc seems to imply "in the manner of the jongleurs". Inevitably, however, pieces of these genres are verbal attacks at jongleurs, in general and in specific, with named individuals being called out. It is clear, for example from the poetry of Bertran de Born, that jongleurs were performers who did not usually compose. They often performed the troubadours' songs: singing, playing instruments, dancing, and even doing acrobatics.
In the late 13th century Guiraut Riquier bemoaned the inexactness of his contemporaries and wrote a letter to Alfonso X of Castile, a noted patron of literature and learning of all kinds, for clarification on the proper reference of the terms trobador and joglar. According to Riquier, every vocation deserved a name of its own and the sloppy usage of joglar assured that it covered a multitude of activities, some, no doubt, with which Riquier did not wish to be associated. In the end Riquier argued—and Alfonso X seems to agree, though his "response" was probably penned by Riquier—that a joglar was a courtly entertainer (as opposed to popular or low-class one) and a troubadour was a poet and composer.
Despite the distinctions noted, many troubadours were also known as jongleurs, either before they began composing or alongside. Aimeric de Belenoi, Aimeric de Sarlat, Albertet Cailla, Arnaut de Mareuil, Elias de Barjols, Elias Fonsalada, Falquet de Romans, Guillem Magret, Guiraut de Calanso, Nicoletto da Torino, Peire Raimon de Tolosa, Peire Rogier, Peire de Valeira, Peirol, Pistoleta, Perdigon, Salh d'Escola, Uc de la Bacalaria, Uc Brunet, and Uc de Saint Circ were jongleur-troubadours.
A razo (from Occitan for "reason") was a similar short piece of Occitan prose detailing the circumstances of a particular composition. A razo normally introduced the poem it explained; it might, however, share some of the characteristics of a vida. The razos suffer from the same problems as the vidas in terms of reliability. Many are likewise the work of Uc de Saint Circ.
The first podestà-troubadour was Rambertino Buvalelli, possibly the first troubadour native to the Italian Peninsula, who was podestà of Genoa between 1218 and 1221. Rambertino, a Guelph, served at one time or another as podestà of Brescia, Milan, Parma, Mantua, and Verona. It was probably during his three-year tenure there that he introduced Occitan lyric poetry to the city, which was later to develop a flourishing Occitan literary culture.
Among the podestà-troubadours to follow Rambertino, four were from Genoa: the Guelphs Luca Grimaldi, who also served in Florence, Milan, and Ventimiglia, and Luchetto Gattilusio, who served in Milan, Cremona, and Bologna, and the Ghibellines Perceval Doria, who served in Arles, Avignon, Asti, and Parma, and Simon Doria, sometime podestà of Savona and Albenga. Among the non-Genoese podestà-troubadours was Alberico da Romano, a nobleman of high rank who governed Vicenza and Treviso as variously a Ghibelline and a Guelph. He was a patron as well as a composer of Occitan lyric.
Mention should be made of the Provençal troubadour Isnart d'Entrevenas, who was podestà of Arles in 1220, though he does not fit the phenomenon Giulio Bertoni first identified in Italy.
The trobairitz were in most respects as varied a lot as their male counterparts, with the general exceptions of their poetic style and their provenance. They wrote predominantly cansos and ; only one sirventes by a named woman, Gormonda de Monpeslier, survives (though two anonymous ones are attributed to women). One salut d'amor, by a woman (Azalais d'Altier) to a woman (Clara d'Anduza) is also extant and one anonymous planh is usually assigned a female authorship. They wrote almost entirely within the trobar leu style; only two poems, one by Lombarda and another Alais, Yselda, and Carenza, are usually considered to belong to the more demanding trobar clus. None of the trobairitz were prolific, or if they were their work has not survived. Only two have left us more than one piece: the Comtessa de Dia, with four, and Castelloza, with three or four. One of the known trobairitz, Gaudairença, wrote a song entitled Coblas e dansas, which has not survived; no other piece of hers has either.
The trobairitz came almost to a woman from Occitania. There are representatives from the Auvergne, Provence, Languedoc, the Dauphiné, Toulousain, and the Limousin. One trobairitz, Ysabella, may have been born in Périgord, Northern Italy, Latin Empire, or Palestine. All the trobairitz whose families we know were high-born ladies; only one, Lombarda, was probably of the merchant class. All the trobairitz known by name lived around the same time: the late 12th and the early 13th century (c. 1170 – c. 1260). The earliest was probably Tibors de Sarenom, who was active in the 1150s (the date of her known composition is uncertain). The latest was either Garsenda of Forcalquier, who died in 1242, though her period of poetic patronage and composition probably occurred a quarter century earlier, or Guilleuma de Rosers, who composed a tenso with Lanfranc Cigala, known between 1235 and 1257. There exist brief prose biographies— vidas—for eight trobairitz: Almucs de Castelnau (actually a razo), Azalais de Porcairagues, the Comtessa de Dia, Castelloza, Iseut de Capio (also a razo), Lombarda, Maria de Ventadorn, and Tibors de Sarenom.
Modern scholars recognise several "schools" in the troubadour tradition. Among the earliest is a school of followers of Marcabru, sometimes called the "Marcabrunian school": Bernart Marti, Bernart de Venzac, Gavaudan, and Peire d'Alvernhe. These poets favoured the trobar clus or ric or a hybrid of the two. They were often moralising in tone and critical of contemporary courtly society. Another early school, whose style seems to have fallen out of favour, was the "Gascon school" of Cercamon, Peire de Valeira, and Guiraut de Calanso. Cercamon was said by his biographer to have composed in the "old style" ( la uzansa antiga) and Guiraut's songs were d'aquella saison ("of that time"). This style of poetry seems to be attached to early troubadours from Gascony and was characterised by references to nature: leaves, flowers, birds, and their songs. This Gascon "literary fad" was unpopular in Provence in the early 13th century, harming the reputation of the poets associated with it.
In the late 13th century a school arose at Béziers, once the centre of pre-Albigensian Languedoc and of the Trencavel lordships, in the 1260s–80s. Four poets epitomise this "school": Bernart d'Auriac, Joan Esteve, Joan Miralhas, and Raimon Gaucelm. The latter three were natives of Béziers and all four lived there. All were members of the urban middle class and no courtesans: Miralhas was possibly a potter and Bernart was a mayestre (teacher). All wrote in Occitan but were supporters of the French king Louis IX and the French aristocracy against the native Occitan nobility. They have been described as "Gallicised". Raimon Gaucelm supported the Eighth Crusade and even wrote a planh, the only known one of its kind, to a burgher of Béziers. Joan Esteve and Bernart both composed in support of the French in the Aragonese Crusade. The Béziers poets are a shining example of the transformation of Occitania in the aftermath of the Albigensian Crusade, but also of the ability of troubadours to survive it.
All these genres were highly fluid. A cross between a sirventes and a canso was a meg-sirventes (half- sirventes). A tenso could be "invented" by a single poet; an alba or canso could be written with religious significance, addressed to God or the Virgin; and a sirventes may be nothing more than a political attack. The maldit and the comiat were often connected as a maldit-comiat and they could be used to attack and renounce a figure other than a lady or a lover, like a commanding officer (when combined, in a way, with the sirventes).
Peire Bremon Ricas Novas uses the term mieja chanso (half song) and Cerverí de Girona uses a similar phrase, miga canço, both to refer to a short canso and not a mixture of genres as sometimes supposed. Cerverí's mig (or meig) vers e miga canço was a vers in the new sense (a moralising song) that was also highly critical and thus combined the canso and the sirventes. Among the more than one hundred works of Cerverí de Girona are many songs with unique labels, which may correspond more to "titles" than "genres", but that is debatable: peguesca (nonsense), espingadura (flageolet song), libel (legal petition), esdemessa (leap), somni (dream), acuyndamen (challenge), desirança (nostalgia), aniversari (anniversary), serena (serene).Frank M. Chambers (1985), An Introduction to Old Provençal Versification, (Darby, PA: Diane Publishing, .), pp. 195–96.
Most "Crusading songs" are classified either as cansos or sirventes but sometimes separately. Some styles became popular in other languages and in other literary or musical traditions. In French, the alba became the aubade, the pastorela the pastourelle, and the partimen the jeu parti. The sestina became popular in Italian literature. The troubadours were not averse to borrowing either. The planh developed out of the Latin planctus and the sonnet was stolen from the Sicilian School. The basse danse ( bassa dansa) was first mentioned in the troubadour tradition (c. 1324), but only as being performed by jongleurs.
The court was not the only venue for troubadour performance. Competitions were held from an early date. According to the vida of the Monge de Montaudon, he received a sparrow hawk, a prized hunting bird, for his poetry from the cour du Puy, some sort of poetry society associated with the court of Alfonso II of Aragon. The most famous contests were held in the twilight of the troubadours in the 14th and 15th centuries. The jocs florals held by the Consistori del Gay Saber at Toulouse, by Peter IV of Aragon at Lleida, and the Consistori de la Gaya Sciència at Barcelona awarded floral prizes to the best poetry in various categories, judging it by its accordance with a code called the Leys d'amors.
Troubadour songs are still performed and recorded today, albeit rarely.
| Razos de trobar | "Explanations of composition" | Raimon Vidal | c. 1210 | Prose guide to poetic composition that defends the superiority of Occitan over other vernaculars. Occitan–Italian dictionary. | |
| Donatz proensals | "Provençal Donatus" | Uc Faidit | c. 1243 | An Occitan imitation of Aelius Donatus. A rhymary and Latin–Occitan dictionary designed for Italians. | |
| Doctrina de compondre dictats | "Doctrinal of understanding sayings" | Anonymous, possibly Raimon Vidal | late 13th century | A catalogue and explanation of the different poetic genres. It expands on the Razos and may be the concluding section of the Regles of Jaufre de Foixa. | |
| Lo breviari d'amors | "Breviary of love" | Matfre Ermengau | begun 1288 | A pious encyclopedia, the last section of which, "Perilhos tractatz d'amor de donas, seguon qu'en han tractat li antic trobador en lurs cansos", is an Occitan grammar. | |
| Doctrina d'acort | "Doctrinal of concordance" | Terramagnino da Pisa | 1282–96, Sardinia | A condensed verse adaptation of the Razos, poorly preserved in the manuscripts. | |
| Regles de trobar | "Rules of composition" | Jaufre de Foixa | 1289–91, Sicily | Contains many examples of troubadour verse, designed to augment the Razos de trobar. | |
| Mirall de trobar | "Mirror of composition" | Berenguer d'Anoia | early 14th century | Mainly covers rhetoric and errors, and is littered with examples of troubadour verse. | |
| Cançoneret de Ripoll | "Little Chansonnier of Ripoll" | Anonymous | 1346, Roussillon or Cerdagne | A chansonnier containing a unique grammar, including a catalogue of poetic genres, expands on the Doctrina de compondre dictats and the Leys d'amors. | |
| Leys d'amors | "Laws of love" | Guilhem Molinier | 1328–37, Toulouse | First commissioned in 1323. Prose rules governing the Consistori del Gay Saber and the Consistori de Barcelona. | |
| Leys d'amors | "Laws of love" | Anonymous | 1337–47, Toulouse | Verse adaptation of the prose Leys. | |
| Leys d'amors | "Laws of love" | Joan de Castellnou | 1355, Toulouse | Final, expanded, prose version of the previous Leys. | |
| Doctrinal de trobar | "Doctrinal of composition" | Raimon de Cornet | c. 1324 (before 1341) | Dedicated to Peter IV of Aragon, identical in structure to the Leys of Guilhem Molinier. | |
| Glosari | "Glossary" | Joan de Castellnou | 1341 | A commentary on the Doctrinal de trobar. | |
| Compendi | "Compendium" | Joan de Castellnou | before 1341 | A catalogue of all the "vices" one can commit by transgressing the Leys etc. | |
| Libre de concordances (or Diccionari de rims) | "Book of concordances" (or "Dictionary of rhymes") | Jaume March II | 1371 | An Occitan rhymary for Catalans. | |
| Torcimany | "Translation" | Luys d'Averçó | late 14th century | A rhymary and Catalan–Occitan dictionary. |
Troubadour songs are generally referred to by their , that is, their opening lines. If this is long, or after it has already been mentioned, an abbreviation of the incipit may be used for convenience. A few troubadour songs are known by "nicknames", thus D'un sirventes far by Guilhem Figueira is commonly called the Sirventes contra Roma. When a writer seeks to avoid using unglossed Occitan, the incipit of the song may be given in translation instead or a title may even be invented to reflect the theme of the work. Especially in translations designed for a popular audience, such as Ezra Pound's, English titles are commonly invented by the translator/editor. There are examples, however, of troubadour songs given Occitan titles in the manuscripts, such as an anonymous pastorela that begins Mentre per una ribeira, which is entitled Porquieira.
| A | Lombardy, 13th century | Biblioteca Vaticana, Rome | Latin 5232 | ||
| B | Occitania, 13th century | italic=no, Paris | BN f.f. 1592 | ||
| C | Occitania, 14th century | italic=no, Paris | BN f.f. 856 | ||
| D | Lombardy, 12 August 1254 | Biblioteca Estense, Modena | α.R.4.4 = Kg.4.MS2 = E.45 | The Poetarum Provinciali. | |
| E | Occitania, 14th century | italic=no, Paris | BN f.f. 1749 | ||
| F | Lombardy, 14th century | Biblioteca Vaticana, Rome | Chigi L.IV.106 | ||
| G | Lombardy or Venetia, late 13th century | Biblioteca Ambrosiana, Milan | R 71 sup. | Contains troubadour music. | |
| H | Lombardy, late 13th century | Biblioteca Vaticana, Rome | Latin 3207 | ||
| I | Lombardy, 13th century | italic=no, Paris | BN f.f. 854 | ||
| J | Occitania, 14th century | Biblioteca Nazionale, Florence | Conventi Soppressi F.IV.776 | ||
| K | Lombardy, 13th century | italic=no, Paris | BN f.f. 12473 | ||
| L | Lombardy, 14th century | Biblioteca Vaticana, Rome | Latin 3206 | ||
| M | Lombardy, 14th century | italic=no, Paris | BN f.f. 12474 | ||
| N | Italy, ca. 1285-1300 | Pierpont Morgan, New York | 819 | The Philipps Manuscript. | |
| O | Lombardy, 14th century | Biblioteca Vaticana, Rome | Latin 3208 | ||
| P | Lombardy, 1310 | Biblioteca Laurenziana, Florence | Plut.XLI.42 | ||
| Q | Lombardy, 14th century | Biblioteca Riccardiana, Florence | 2909 ( diplomatic edition) | ||
| R | Toulouse or Rouergue, 14th century | italic=no, Paris | BN f.f. 22543 | Contains more troubadour music than any other manuscript. Perhaps produced for Henry II of Rodez. | |
| S | Lombardy, 13th century | Bodleian Library, Oxford | Douce 269 | ||
| Sg | Catalonia, 14th century | Biblioteca de Catalunya, Barcelona | 146 | The famous Cançoner Gil. Called Z in the reassignment of letter names by François Zufferey. | |
| T | Lombardy, late 13th century | italic=no, Paris | BN f.f. 15211 | ||
| U | Lombardy, 14th century | Biblioteca Laurenziana, Florence | Plut.XLI.43 | ||
| V | Catalonia, 1268 | Biblioteca Marciana, Venice | fr. App. cod. XI | ||
| W | perhaps Artois, 1254– | italic=no, Paris | BN f.f. 844 | Also trouvère manuscript M. Contains the chansonnier du roi of Theobald I of Navarre. Possibly produced for Charles I of Naples. Contains troubadour music. | |
| X | Lorraine, 13th century | italic=no, Paris | BN f.f. 20050 | Chansonnier de Saint-Germain-des-Prés. Also trouvère manuscript U and therefore has marks of French influence. Contains troubadour music. Owned by Saint-Germain-des-Prés in the 18th century. | |
| Y | France/Lombardy, 13th century | italic=no, Paris | BN f.f. 795 | ||
| Z | Occitania, 13th century | italic=no, Paris | BN f.f. 1745 | ||
| a | Biblioteca Riccardiana, Florence | 2814 | Copy of a lost manuscript compiled by Bernart Amoros. | ||
| a1 | Biblioteca Estense, Modena | Gamma.N.8.4.11–13 = Càmpori Appendice 426, 427, 494 | Copy of a lost manuscript compiled by Bernart Amoros. | ||
| b | Biblioteca Vaticana, Rome | Barberiniani 4087 | Copy of a lost manuscript compiled by Miquel de la Tor. | ||
| c | Biblioteca Laurenziana, Florence | Plut. XC inferiore 26 | |||
| d | Staatsbibliothek, Berlin | Phillipps 1910 | Pillet-Carstens N2, since Pillet-Carstens d is a mere copy of K. | ||
| e | Biblioteca Vaticana, Rome | Latin 7182 | |||
| e (Pillet-Carstens) | Biblioteca Vaticana, Rome | Barberiniani 3965 | Copy of a lost manuscript compiled by Miquel de la Tor. | ||
| f | italic=no, Paris | BN f.f. 12472 |
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