Pharaoh (, ;[Clayton, Peter A. Chronicle of the Pharaohs the Reign-by-reign Record of the Rulers and Dynasties of Ancient Egypt. London: Thames & Hudson, CE 2012. Print.] However, the equivalent Egyptian word for "king" was the term used most frequently by the ancient Egyptians for their monarchs, regardless of gender, through the middle of the Eighteenth Dynasty during the New Kingdom. The earliest confirmed instances of "pharaoh" used contemporaneously for a ruler were a letter to Akhenaten (reigned –1336 BCE) or an inscription possibly referring to Thutmose III (–1425 BCE).
In the early dynasties, ancient Egyptian kings had as many as three titles: the Horus name, the Sedge and Bee (), and the Two Ladies or Nebty () name.
In Egyptian society, religion was central to everyday life. One of the roles of the king was as an intermediary between the deities and the people. The king thus was deputised for the deities in a role that was both as civil and religious administrator. The king owned all of the land in Egypt, enacted laws, collected taxes, and served as commander-in-chief of the military.
During the early days prior to the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt, the Deshret or the "Red Crown", was a representation of the kingdom of Lower Egypt,
Etymology
The word
pharaoh ultimately derives from the Egyptian compound
pr ꜥꜣ]], * "great house", written with the two biliteral hieroglyphs
pr "house" and
ꜥꜣ "column", here meaning "great" or "high". It was the title of the royal palace and was used only in larger phrases such as
pr-ꜥꜣ "Courtier of the High House", with specific reference to the buildings of the court or palace.
[A. Gardiner, Ancient Egyptian Grammar (3rd ed., 1957), 71–76.] From the Twelfth Dynasty onward, the word appears in a wish formula "Great House, May it Live, Prosper, and be in Health", but again only with reference to the royal palace and not a person.
Sometime during the era of the New Kingdom,
pharaoh became the form of address for a person who was king. The earliest confirmed instance where
pr ꜥꜣ is used specifically to address the ruler is in a letter to the eighteenth dynasty king,
Akhenaten (reigned –1336 BCE), that is addressed to "Great House, L, W, H, the Lord".
[ Hieratic Papyrus from Kahun and Gurob, F. LL. Griffith, 38, 17.] However, there is a possibility that the title
pr ꜥꜣ first might have been applied personally to
Thutmose III (–1425 BCE), depending on whether an inscription on the Temple of Armant may be confirmed to refer to that king.
[, 160.] During the Eighteenth dynasty (sixteenth to fourteenth centuries BCE) the title pharaoh was employed as a
deference of the ruler. About the late Twenty-first Dynasty (tenth century BCE), however, instead of being used alone and originally just for the palace, it began to be added to the other titles before the name of the king, and from the Twenty-Fifth Dynasty (eighth to seventh centuries BCE, during the declining Third Intermediate Period) it was, at least in ordinary use, the only
epithet prefixed to the royal appellative.
["pharaoh" in Encyclopædia Britannica. Ultimate Reference Suite. Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, 2008.]
From the Nineteenth dynasty onward pr-ꜥꜣ on its own, was used as regularly as , "Majesty".
The first dated appearance of the title "pharaoh" being attached to a ruler's name occurs in Year 17 of Siamun (tenth century BCE) on a fragment from the Karnak Priestly Annals, a religious document. Here, an induction of an individual to the Amun priesthood is dated specifically to the reign of "Pharaoh Siamun".[J-M. Kruchten, Les annales des pretres de Karnak (OLA 32), 1989, pp. 474–478.] This new practice was continued under his successor, Psusennes II, and the subsequent kings of the twenty-second dynasty. For instance, the Large Dakhla stela is specifically dated to Year 5 of king "Pharaoh Shoshenq, beloved of Amun", whom all Egyptologists concur was Shoshenq I—the founder of the Twenty-second Dynasty—including Alan Gardiner in his original 1933 publication of this stela.[Alan Gardiner, "The Dakhleh Stela", Journal of Egyptian Archaeology, Vol. 19, No. 1/2 (May, 1933) pp. 193–200.] Shoshenq I was the second successor of Siamun. Meanwhile, the traditional custom of referring to the sovereign as, pr-ˤ3, continued in official Egyptian narratives.
The title is reconstructed to have been pronounced in the Late Egyptian language, from which the Greek historian Herodotus derived the name of one of the Egyptian kings, .[Herodotus, Histories 2.111.1. See , commenting on ch. 59.1.] In the Hebrew Bible, the title also occurs as ;[ Elazar Ari Lipinski: "Pesach – A holiday of questions. About the Haggadah-Commentary Zevach Pesach of Rabbi Isaak Abarbanel (1437–1508). Explaining the meaning of the name Pharaoh." Published first in German in the official quarterly of the Organization of the Jewish Communities of Bavaria: Jüdisches Leben in Bayern. Mitteilungsblatt des Landesverbandes der Israelitischen Kultusgemeinden in Bayern. Pessach-Ausgabe Nr. 109, 2009, , S. 3–4.] from that, in the Septuagint, , and then in Late Latin pharaō, both -n stem nouns. The Qur'an likewise spells it firʿawn with n (here, always referring to the one evil king in the Book of Exodus story, by contrast to the good king in surah Yusuf's story). The Arabic combines the original ayin from Egyptian along with the -n ending from Greek.
In English, the term was at first spelled "Pharao", but the translators for the King James Bible revived "Pharaoh" with "h" from the Hebrew. Meanwhile, in Egypt, evolved into Coptic language pərro and then ərro by rebracketing p- as the definite article "the" (from ancient Egyptian ).[Walter C. Till: "Koptische Grammatik". VEB Verlag Enzyklopädie, Leipzig, 1961. p. 62.]
Other notable epithets are , translated to "king"; , "Majesty"; for "monarch or sovereign"; for "lord";
Functions
As a central figure of the state, the pharaoh was the obligatory intermediary between the gods and humans. To the former, he ensured the proper performance of rituals in the
Egyptian temple; to the latter, he guaranteed agricultural prosperity, the defense of the territory and impartial justice.
In the sanctuaries, the image of the sovereign is omnipresent through parietal scenes and . In this iconography, the pharaoh is invariably represented as the equal of the gods. In the religious speech, he is however only their humble servant, a zealous servant who makes multiple offerings. This piety expresses the hope of a just return of service. Filled with goods, the gods must favorably activate the forces of nature for a common benefit to all Egyptians. The only human being admitted to dialogue with the gods on an equal level, the Pharaoh was the supreme officiant; the first of the priests of the country. More widely, the pharaonic gesture covered all the fields of activity of the collective and ignored the separation of powers. Also, every member of the administration acts only in the name of the royal person, by delegation of power.
From the Pyramid Texts, the political actions of the sovereign were framed by a single maxim: "Bring Maat and repel Isfet", that is to say, promote harmony and repel chaos. As the nurturing father of the people, the Pharaoh ensured prosperity by calling upon the gods to regulate the waters of the Nile, by opening the granaries in case of famine and by guaranteeing a good distribution of arable land. Chief of the armies, the pharaoh was the brave protector of the borders. Like Ra who fights the serpent Apep, the king of Egypt repels the plunderers of the desert, fights the invading armies and defeats the internal rebels. The Pharaoh was always the sole victor; standing up and knocking out a bunch of prisoners or shooting arrows from his battle chariot. As the only legislator, the laws and decrees he promulgated were seen as inspired by divine wisdom. This legislation, kept in the archives and placed under the responsibility of the vizier, applied to all, for the common good and social agreement.
Regalia
Scepters and staves
and staves were a general symbol of authority in
ancient Egypt.
[Wilkinson, Toby A. H. Early Dynastic Egypt. Routledge, 2001, p. 158.] One of the earliest royal scepters was discovered in the tomb of
Khasekhemwy in Abydos.
Kings were also known to carry a staff, and
Anedjib is shown on stone vessels carrying a so-called
mks-staff.
[Wilkinson, Toby A. H. Early Dynastic Egypt. Routledge, 2001, p. 159.] The scepter with the longest history seems to be the
heqa-sceptre, sometimes described as the shepherd's crook.
[Wilkinson, Toby A. H. Early Dynastic Egypt. Routledge, 2001, p. 160.] The earliest examples of this piece of regalia dates to prehistoric Egypt. A scepter was found in a tomb at Abydos that dates to
Naqada III.
Another scepter associated with the king is the was-sceptre.
The flail later was closely related to the heqa-scepter (the crook and flail), but in early representations the king was also depicted solely with the flail, as shown in a late pre-dynastic knife handle that is now in the Metropolitan museum, and on the Narmer Macehead.[Wilkinson, Toby A. H. Early Dynastic Egypt. Routledge, 2001, p. 161.]
The Uraeus
The earliest evidence known of the
Uraeus—a rearing cobra—is from the reign of Den from the first dynasty. The cobra supposedly protected the king by spitting fire at its enemies.
[Wilkinson, Toby A. H. Early Dynastic Egypt. Routledge, 2001, p. 162.]
Crowns and headdresses
Deshret
The red crown of Lower Egypt, the
Deshret crown, dates back to pre-dynastic times and symbolised chief ruler. A red crown has been found on a pottery shard from
Naqada, and later,
Narmer is shown wearing the red crown on both the
Narmer Macehead and the
Narmer Palette.
Hedjet
The white crown of Upper Egypt, the
Hedjet, was worn in the Predynastic Period by
Scorpion II, and, later, by Narmer.
Pschent
This is the combination of the Deshret and Hedjet crowns into a double crown, called the
Pschent crown. It is first documented in the middle of the First Dynasty of Egypt. The earliest depiction may date to the reign of
Djet, and is otherwise surely attested during the reign of Den.
[Wilkinson, Toby A. H. Early Dynastic Egypt. Routledge, 2001 ]
Khat
The
khat headdress consists of a kind of "kerchief" whose end is tied similarly to a
ponytail. The earliest depictions of the
khat headdress comes from the reign of Den, but is not found again until the reign of
Djoser.
Nemes
The
Nemes headdress dates from the time of
Djoser. It is the most common type of royal headgear depicted throughout Pharaonic Egypt. Any other type of crown, apart from the Khat headdress, has been commonly depicted on top of the Nemes. The statue from his
Serdab in
Saqqara shows the king wearing the
nemes headdress.
Atef
Osiris is shown to wear the
Atef crown, which is an elaborate
Hedjet with feathers and disks. Depictions of kings wearing the Atef crown originate from the Old Kingdom.
Hemhem
The
Hemhem crown is usually depicted on top of
Nemes,
Pschent, or
Deshret crowns. It is an ornate, triple
Atef with corkscrew sheep horns and usually two uraei. The depiction of this crown begins among New Kingdom rulers during the Early Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt.
Khepresh
Also called the blue crown, the
Khepresh crown has been depicted in art since the New Kingdom. It is often depicted being worn in battle, but it was also frequently worn during ceremonies. It used to be called a war crown by many, but modern historians refrain from defining it thus.
Physical evidence
Egyptologist
Bob Brier has noted that despite their widespread depiction in royal portraits, no ancient Egyptian crown has ever been discovered. The tomb of
Tutankhamun that was discovered largely intact, contained such royal regalia as a crook and flail, but no crown was found among his funerary equipment. Diadems have been discovered.
[Shaw, Garry J. The Pharaoh, Life at Court and on Campaign. Thames and Hudson, 2012, pp. 21, 77.] It is presumed that crowns would have been believed to have magical properties and were used in rituals. Brier's speculation is that crowns were religious or state items, so a dead king likely could not retain a crown as a personal possession. The crowns may have been passed along to the successor, much as the crowns of modern monarchies.
[Bob Brier, The Murder of Tutankhamen, 1998, p. 95.]
Titles
During the Early Dynastic Period kings had three titles. The
Horus name is the oldest and dates to the late pre-dynastic period. The Nesu Bity name was added during the First Dynasty. The Nebty name (Two Ladies) was first introduced toward the end of the First Dynasty.
The Golden falcon (
bik-nbw) name is not well understood. The prenomen and nomen were introduced later and are traditionally enclosed in a cartouche.
By the Middle Kingdom, the official titulary of the ruler consisted of five names; Horus, Nebty, Golden Horus, nomen, and prenomen
[Ian Shaw, The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, Oxford University Press 2000, p. 477] for some rulers, only one or two of them may be known.
Horus name
The Horus name was adopted by the king, when taking the throne. The name was written within a square frame representing the palace, named a
serekh. The earliest known example of a serekh dates to the reign of king Ka, before the First Dynasty.
[Toby A. H. Wilkinson, Early Dynastic Egypt, Routledge 1999, pp. 57f.] The Horus name of several early kings expresses a relationship with
Horus.
Hor-Aha refers to "Horus the fighter",
Djer refers to "Horus the strong", etc. Later kings express ideals of kingship in their Horus names.
Khasekhemwy refers to "Horus: the two powers are at peace", while Nebra refers to "Horus, Lord of the Sun".
Nesu Bity name
The
Nesu Bity name, also known as prenomen, was one of the new developments from the reign of Den. The name would follow the glyphs for the "Sedge and the Bee". The title is usually translated as king of Upper and Lower Egypt. The
nsw bity name may have been the birth name of the king. It was often the name by which kings were recorded in the later annals and king lists.
Nebty name
The earliest example of a
Nebty (
Two Ladies) name comes from the reign of king
Hor-Aha from the First Dynasty. The title links the king with the goddesses of Upper and Lower Egypt,
Nekhbet and
Wadjet.
The title is preceded by the vulture (Nekhbet) and the cobra (Wadjet) standing on a basket (the neb sign).
Golden Horus
The Golden Horus or Golden Falcon name was preceded by a falcon on a gold or
nbw sign. The title may have represented the divine status of the king. The Horus associated with gold may be referring to the idea that the bodies of the deities were made of gold and the pyramids and
are representations of (golden)
sun-rays. The gold sign may also be a reference to Nubt, the city of Set. This would suggest that the iconography represents Horus conquering Set.
Nomen and prenomen
The prenomen and nomen were contained in a cartouche. The prenomen often followed the King of Upper and Lower Egypt (
nsw bity) or Lord of the Two Lands (
nebtawy) title. The prenomen often incorporated the name of Re. The nomen often followed the title, Son of Re (
sa-ra), or the title, Lord of Appearances (
neb-kha).
[Dodson, Aidan and Hilton, Dyan. The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt. Thames & Hudson. 2004. ]
Divinity
Ancient Egypt
In
Ancient Egypt, the Pharaoh was often considered to be divine. This precept originated before 3000 BCE and the Egyptian office of divine kingship would go on to influence many other societies and kingdoms, surviving into the
modern era. The Pharaoh also became a mediator between the gods and man. This institution represents an innovation over that of
Sumer city-states where, though the clan leader or king mediated between his people and the gods, did not himself represent a god on Earth. The few Sumerian exceptions to this would post-date the origins of this practice in ancient Egypt. For example, the legendary king
Gilgamesh, thought to have reigned in Uruk as a contemporary of the Egyptian ruler
Djoser, was cast as having had his mother as the Mesopotamian goddess
Ninsun alongside his father, the previous human ruler of Uruk. Another Mesopotamian example of a god-king was Naram-Sin of Akkad. During the Early Dynastic Period, the Pharaoh was represented as the divine incarnation of
Horus, and the unifier of Upper and Lower Egypt. By the time of
Djedefre (26th century BCE), the Pharaoh also ceased to have a father, as his mother was magically impregnated by the solar deity Ra. According to Pyramid Text Utterance 571, "... the King was fashioned by his father Atum before the sky existed, before earth existed, before men existed, before the gods were born, before death existed ..." According to an inscription on the statue of
Horemheb (14th–13th centuries BCE): "he Horemheb already came out of his mother's bosom adorned with the prestige and the divine color ..."
Inscriptions regularly described the Pharaoh as the "good god" or "perfect god" (
nfr ntr). By the time of the
New Kingdom, the divinity of the king was imbued as he possessed the manifestation of the god
Amun-Re; this was referred to as his 'living royal
ka' which he received during the coronation ceremony. The divinity of Pharaoh was still held to during the period of
Persia domination of Egypt. The Persian emperor Darius the Great (522–486 BCE) was referred to as a divine being in Egyptian temple texts. Such descriptions continued and were designated to Alexander the Great after his conquest of Egypt, and later still for the rulers of the Ptolemaic Kingdom that succeeded Alexander's rule.
Classical Greece
Descriptions of the divinity of the Pharaoh are much more infrequent in sources from
Classical Greece. One Ptolemaic-era hymn describes the divinity of the Pharaoh, though this may reflect Greek notions of divine kingship just as much as it could reflect Egyptian ones. The historian
Herodotus explicitly denies this, claiming that Egyptian priests rejected any notion of the divinity of the king. The only explicit classical Greek source which describes the divinity of Pharaoh is contained in the writings of
Diodorus Siculus in the 1st century BCE, who in turn relies on Hecataeus of Abdera as his source of information. Diodorus slightly contradicts himself in a different passage where he asserts that Darius I was the first ruler of Egypt to be honored as a king.
Rabbinic literature
Even after the reign of the Egyptian kings and pharaohs, the notion of Pharaoh's self-notion as a divine being survived and is described in rabbinic literature. In these sources, the Pharaoh is described as hubristically asserting his own divinity and yet, compared to the one true God, is no more than an impotent human.
Mekhilta of Rabbi Ishmael, Shirah 8:32 names Pharaoh among those who proclaimed themselves as gods, alongside
Sennacherib and
Nebuchadnezzar.
89:3 invokes Pharaoh describing himself as the god over the
Nile river. In
Exodus Rabbah 10:2, Pharaoh boasts that he is the creator and owner of the Nile. God is then said to have responded to this statement by challenging the Pharaoh over who owns the Nile, as God proceeds to create a disaster by bringing forth frogs from it that consume Egypt's agriculture. In other midrashic texts, Pharaoh asserts himself as the creator of the universe and even of himself.
In the
Tanhuma, in commentary on Ezekiel 29:9, Pharaoh is said to have proclaimed himself as lord of the universe. Pharaoh is represented as a heretical figure who presents himself as divine, and these texts then claim that his claims were exposed when he had to go to the Nile to relieve himself.
See also
-
List of pharaohs
-
Roman pharaoh
-
Coronation of the pharaoh
-
Curse of the pharaohs
-
Egyptian chronology
-
Pharaohs in the Bible
Notes
Bibliography
-
Shaw, Garry J. The Pharaoh, Life at Court and on Campaign, Thames and Hudson, 2012.
-
Sir Alan Gardiner Egyptian Grammar: Being an Introduction to the Study of Hieroglyphs, Third Edition, Revised. London: Oxford University Press, 1964. Excursus A, pp. 71–76.
-
Jan Assmann, "Der Mythos des Gottkönigs im Alten Ägypten", in Christine Schmitz und Anja Bettenworth (hg.), Menschen – Heros – Gott: Weltentwürfe und Lebensmodelle im Mythos der Vormoderne (Stuttgart, Franz Steiner Verlag, 2009), pp. 11–26.
External links
