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An oppidum (: oppida) is a large fortified Iron Age settlement or town. Oppida are primarily associated with the late La Tène culture, emerging during the 2nd and 1st centuries BC, spread across Europe, stretching from Britain and in the west to the edge of the Hungarian Plain in the east.

(1999). 9780631174233, Blackwell Publishing. .
(1993). 9780874367447, ABC-CLIO.
(1995). 9781135632434, Routledge. .
(2018). 9780199696826 .
These settlements continued to be used until the Romans conquered Southern and Western Europe. Many subsequently became Roman-era towns and cities, whilst others were abandoned.
(1995). 9781135632434, Routledge. .
(2019). 9789004414365, Brill. .
(2025). 9780684806686, Gale. .
In regions north of the rivers and , such as most of , where the populations remained independent from Rome, oppida continued to be used into the 1st century AD.


Definition
Oppidum is a word meaning 'defended (fortified) administrative centre or town', originally used in reference to non-Roman towns as well as provincial towns under Roman control.
(1999). 9780631174233, Blackwell Publishing. .
(2016). 9780199381135 .
The word is derived from the earlier Latin ob-pedum, 'enclosed space', possibly from the Proto-Indo-European pedóm-, 'occupied space' or 'footprint'. In modern archaeological usage oppidum is a conventional term for large fortified settlements associated with the Celtic La Tène culture.
(2016). 9780199381135 .

In his Commentarii de Bello Gallico, described the larger settlements he encountered in during the in 58 to 52 BC as oppida. Although he did not explicitly define what features qualified a settlement to be called an oppidum, the main requirements emerge. They were important economic sites, places where goods were produced, stored and traded, and sometimes Roman merchants had settled and the could obtain supplies. They were also political centres, the seat of authorities who made decisions that affected large numbers of people, such as the appointment of as head of the Gallic revolt in 52 BC.

(2025). 9783806222425, WBG.

Caesar named 28 oppida. By 2011, only 21 of these had been positively identified by historians and archaeologists: either there was a traceable similarity between the Latin and the modern name of the locality (e.g. -Orléans), or excavations had provided the necessary evidence (e.g. Alesia). Most of the places that Caesar called oppida were city-sized fortified settlements. However, , for example, was referred to as an oppidum, but no fortifications dating to this period have yet been discovered there. Caesar also refers to 20 oppida of the and 12 of the , twice the number of fortified settlements of these groups known today. That implies that Caesar likely counted some unfortified settlements as oppida. A similar ambiguity is in evidence in writing by the Roman historian , who also used the word for both fortified and unfortified settlements.

In his work Geographia, listed the coordinates of many Celtic settlements. However, research has shown many of the localisations of Ptolemy to be erroneous, making the identification of any modern location with the names he listed highly uncertain and speculative. An exception to that is the oppidum of Brenodurum at , which was confirmed by an archaeological discovery.

In archaeology and prehistory, the term oppida now refers to a category of settlement; it was first used in that sense by , Joseph Déchelette and in reference to , Manching, and .Woolf (1993), pp. 223–24Jones (2001), p. 46 In particular, Dehn suggested defining an oppidum by four criteria:

  1. Size: The settlement has to have a minimum size, defined by Dehn as .
  2. Topography: Most oppida are situated on heights, but some are located on flat areas of land.
  3. Fortification: The settlement is surrounded by a (ideally uninterrupted) wall, usually consisting of three elements: a facade of stone, a wooden construction and an earthen rampart at the back. Gates are usually .
  4. Chronology: The settlement dates from the late : the last two centuries BC.

In current usage, most definitions of oppida emphasise the presence of fortifications, so they are different from undefended farms or settlements, and urban characteristics, marking them as separate from . They are often described as 'the first cities north of the Alps', though earlier examples of urbanism in temperate Europe are also known.

(2018). 9780199696826 .
The 2nd and 1st centuries BC places them in the period known as La Tène. A notional minimum size of has often been suggested, but that is flexible and fortified sites as small as have been described as oppida. However, the term is not always rigorously used, and it has been used to refer to any hill fort or dating from the La Tène period. One of the effects of the inconsistency in definitions is that it is uncertain how many oppida were built.Woolf (1993), pp. 224–225

In European archaeology, the term oppida is also used more widely to characterize any fortified prehistoric settlement. For example, significantly older hill-top structures like the one at (6th or 5th century BC) have been called oppida.

Such wider use of the term is, for example, common in the Iberian archaeology; in the descriptions of the it is commonly used to refer to the settlements going back to the 9th century BC. The Spanish word castro, also used in English, means 'a walled settlement' or 'hill fort', and this word is often used interchangeably with oppidum by archaeologists.Some examples can be seen here: M ALMAGRO-GORBEA (1995), From Hillforts to Oppida in 'Celtic' Iberia


Location and type
According to pre-historian , oppida extend as far east as the Hungarian plain where other settlement types take over.Woolf (1993), p. 225 Around 200 oppida are known today.
(2019). 9789004414365, Brill. .
Central Spain has sites similar to oppida, but while they share features such as size and defensive ramparts the interior was arranged differently.Collis (2000), pp. 229–230 Oppida feature a wide variety of internal structures, from continuous rows of dwellings () to more widely spaced individual estates (Manching). Some oppida had internal layouts resembling the insulae of Roman cities (Variscourt). Little is known, however, about the purpose of any public buildings.

The main features of the oppida are the walls and gates, the spacious layout, and usually a commanding view of the surrounding area. The major difference with earlier structures was their much larger size. Earlier hill forts were mostly just a few hectares in area, whilst oppida could encompass several dozen or even hundreds of hectares. They also played a role in displaying the power and wealth of the local inhabitants and as a line of demarcation between the town and the countryside. According to Jane McIntosh, the "impressive ramparts with elaborate gateways ... were probably as much for show and for controlling the movement of people and goods as for defense".McIntosh (2009), p. 156 Some of the oppida fortifications were built on an immense scale. Construction of the 7km-long murus gallicus at Manching required an estimated 6,900 m3 of stones for the façade alone, up to 7.5 tons of iron nails, 90,000 m3 of earth and stones for the fill between the posts and 100,000 m3 of earth for the ramp. In terms of labour, some 2,000 people would have been needed for 250 days.

(2019). 9789004414365, Brill. .
The 5.5km-long murus gallicus of may have required 40 to 60 of mature oak woodland to be clear-felled for its construction.
(1995). 9781135632434, Routledge. .

However, size and construction of oppida varied considerably. Typically oppida in and were much larger than those found in the north and west of France. A recent discovery reported on July 2025, reveales evidence of a large Celtic settlement near Hradec Králové in the , dating back to the La Tène period. It covers a large area in compare to other typical settlements in the region and likely served as a major economic and administrative center for the Celtic , whose name gave rise to “.”

Typically oppida in Britain are small, but there is a group of large oppida in the south east; though oppida are uncommon in northern Britain, Stanwick stands out as an unusual example as it covers . walls supported by a bank of earth, called ramparts, were characteristic of oppida in central Europe. To the east, timbers were often used to support the earth and stone ramparts, called Pfostenschlitzmauer (post slot wall) or "-type wall". In western Europe, especially Gaul, the (a timber frame nailed together, with a stone facade and earth/stone fill), was the dominant form of rampart construction. Dump ramparts, that is earth unsupported by timber, were common in Britain and were later adopted in France.Woolf (1993), pp. 225–226 They have been found in particular in the north-west and central regions of France and were combined with wide moats ("Type Fécamp"). Oppida can be divided into two broad groups, those around the Mediterranean coast and those further inland. The latter group were larger, more varied, and spaced further apart.Collis (2000), p. 238

In Britain the oppidum of (modern , built between the 1st century BC and the 1st century AD), tribal capital of the and at times the , made use of natural defences enhanced with earthworks to protect itself.Crummy, Philip (1997) City of Victory; the story of Colchester – Britain's first Roman town. Published by Colchester Archaeological Trust () The site was protected by two rivers on three of its sides, with the River Colne bounding the site to the north and east, and the Roman River forming the southern boundary; the extensive bank and ditch earthworks topped with palisades were constructed to close off the open western gap between these two river valleys.Denney, Patrick (2004) Colchester. Published by Tempus Publishing () These earthworks are considered the most extensive of their kind in Britain, and together with the two rivers enclosed the high status farmsteads, burial grounds, religious sites, industrial areas, river port and coin mint of the Trinovantes.


History
Prehistoric Europe saw a growing population. According to Jane McIntosh, in about 5,000 BC during the Neolithic between 2 million and 5 million people lived in Europe;McIntosh (2009), p. 349 in the late (pre-Roman) Iron Age (2nd and 1st centuries BC) it had an estimated population of around 15 to 30 million. Outside Greece and Italy, which were more densely populated, the vast majority of settlements in the Iron Age were small, with perhaps no more than 50 inhabitants. While hill forts could accommodate up to 1,000 people, oppida in the late Iron Age could reach as large as 10,000 inhabitants.

Oppida originated in the 2nd and 1st centuries BC. Most were built on fresh sites, usually on an elevated position. Such a location would have allowed the settlement to dominate nearby trade routes and may also have been important as a symbol of control of the area. For instance at the oppidum of in Spain the height of the ramparts is not uniform: those overlooking the valley are considerably higher than those facing towards the mountains in the area. The traditional explanation is that the smaller ramparts were unfinished because the region was invaded by the Romans; however, archaeologist dismisses this explanation because the inhabitants managed to build a second rampart extending the site by to cover an area of . Instead he believes the role of the ramparts as a status symbol may have been more important than their defensive qualities.Collis (2010), p. 31

While some oppida grew from hill forts, by no means all of them had significant defensive functions. The development of oppida was a milestone in the of the continent as they were among the first large settlements north of the Alps that could genuinely be described as towns or cities (earlier sites include the 'Princely Seats' of the Hallstatt period). Caesar pointed out that each tribe of Gaul would have several oppida but that they were not all of equal importance, implying a form of settlement hierarchy, with some oppida serving as regional capitals. This is also reflected in the archaeological evidence. According to Fichtl (2018), in the first century BC Gaul was divided into around sixty civitates (the term used by Caesar) or 'autonomous city-states', which were mostly organized around one or more oppida. In some cases, "one of these can be regarded effectively as a capital."

(2018). 9780199696826 .
(1995). 9781135632434, Routledge. .

Oppida continued in use until the Romans began conquering Iron Age Europe. Even in the lands north of the that remained unconquered by the Romans, oppida were abandoned by the late 1st century AD. In conquered lands, the Romans used the infrastructure of the oppida to administer the empire, and many became full Roman towns. This often involved a change of location from the hilltop into the plain.


Examples
By modern country.


Belgium/Luxembourg/Netherlands
  • , location undetermined, Belgium
  • Canteleux, Huissignies, Chièvres, Wallonia, Belgium
  • Cheslé, Bérisménil, Samrée La Roche-en-Ardenne, Wallonia, Belgium
  • Chession, , Rochefort, Wallonia, Belgium
  • , Wallonia, Belgium
  • -Ransart, , Wallonia, Belgium
  • Gougnies, , Wallonia, Belgium
  • Orchimont, Vresse-sur-Semois, Wallonia, Belgium
  • Sinsin, , Wallonia, Belgium
  • , Luxembourg
  • , possibly Tungrorum, on the Walloon/Flemish/Dutch border, Belgium/Netherlands


Czech Republic
  • Hostýn
  • , Radíč
  • České Lhotice
  • Staré Hradisko Population estimate 5,000.
  • Třísov
  • Nevězice
  • , 170 ha. Population estimate 3,400. See reconstructed model of the acropolis in 450 BC.


France


Germany


Great Britain


Hungary
  • Budapest-Gellért Hill
  • Velem-Szentvid,


Portugal


Serbia
  • Čarnok, near Vrbas
  • Židovar


Slovakia
  • Bratislava
  • Devín


Spain
  • List of castros in Asturias
  • List of castros in the Basque Country
  • List of castros in Cantabria
  • List of castros in Castile and León
  • List of castros in Galicia


Switzerland


See also
  • Gord (archaeology)
  • Oppidum du Fossé des Pandours
  • Châteliers oppidum

Notes

Bibliography

  • (2000), "'Celtic' Oppida", in Hansen, Mogens Herman, A Comparative Study of Thirty City-state Cultures, Det Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskab, pp. 229–240,
  • Collis, John (2010), "Why do we still dig Iron Age ramparts?" (PDF), Collection Bibracte 19: 27–36,
  • Jones, Stephen (2001) Deconstructing the Celts: a skeptic's guide to the archaeology of the Auvergne. British Archaeological Reports. Oxford: Archaeopress.
  • McIntosh, Jane (2009) Handbook of Life in Prehistoric Europe (paperback ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  • Woolf, Greg (July 1993), "Rethinking the Oppida", Oxford Journal of Archaeology 12: 223–234


Further reading
  • Collis, John (1984), Oppida, earliest towns north of the Alps, Department of Prehistory and Archaeology, University of Sheffield,
  • & Rowley, Trevor (eds.) (1976) Oppida, the Beginnings of Urbanisation in Barbarian Europe: Papers Presented to a Conference at Oxford, October 1975. British Archaeological Reports. Oxford: Archaeopress.
  • Garcia, Dominique (2004) La Celtique Méditeranée: habitats et sociétés en Languedoc et en Provence, VIIIe–IIe siècles av. J.–C. chapter 4 La « civilisation des oppida » : dynamique et chronologie. Paris, Editions Errance.
  • Sabatino Moscati, Otto Hermann Frey, Venceslas Kruta, Barry Raftery, Miklos Szabo (eds.) (1998) The Celts, Rizzoli


External links

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