Nepotism is the act of granting an advantage, privilege, or position to Kinship in an occupation or field. These fields can include business, politics, academia, entertainment, sports, religion or health care. In concept, it is similar to cronyism.
The term originated with the assignment of nephews, sons, or other relatives to important positions by Catholic popes and bishops.
Nepotism has been criticized since ancient history by philosophers, including Aristotle, Thiruvalluvar, and Confucius, condemning it as both evil and unwise.
Origins
The term comes from the Italian word
nepotismo,
[ "Nepotism." Dictionary.com. Retrieved 20 June 2013.] which is based on the Latin root
nepos meaning nephew.
Since the
Middle Ages and until the late 17th century, some
Catholicism popes and bishops – who had taken vows of celibacy and, therefore, usually had no legitimate offspring of their own – gave their nephews such positions of preference as were often accorded by fathers to sons.
They would also do the same with children who were the illegitimate result of broken celibacy vows, and who were claimed to be "nephews" instead of sons.
Several popes Cardinal-nephew and other relatives to the cardinalate. Often, such appointments were a means of continuing a papal "dynasty".
Mention in ancient literature
In the second book of the
Tirukkural, which forms a manual for governments and corporations,
Valluvar suggests about nepotism and favouritism thus:
If you choose an unfit person for your job just because you love and you like him, he will lead you to endless follies.
According to him, nepotism is both evil and unwise.
Types
Political
Nepotism is a common accusation in politics when the relative of a powerful figure ascends to similar power seemingly without appropriate qualifications. The
British English expression "Bob's your uncle" is thought to have originated when Robert Arthur Talbot Gascoyne-Cecil, 3rd Marquess of Salisbury, promoted his nephew,
Arthur Balfour, to the esteemed post of Chief Secretary for Ireland, which was widely seen as an act of nepotism.
[ From Aristotelian to Reaganomics: A Dictionary of Eponyms With Biographies in the Social Science, by R. C. S. Trahair, Greenwood Publishing Group, 1994, p. 72. Retrieved online from Google Books, 30 July 2012.]
Economic
Inheritance has been viewed by some as a form of nepotism.
Organizational
Nepotism in organizations leads to
monopolization of power because when members involved in institutional
decision-making are related, decisions made within institutions risk favoring a group of closely connected people.
Nepotism can also occur within organizations, when a person is employed due to their familial ties.["Richard Utz, "Beyond Consanguinity," Inside Higher Ed , 24 March 2010.] One of the consequences of nepotism in an organization is the creation of a limitation in the organization's network of contacts, reducing the opportunities for negotiation with other social circles, which can lead to a reduction in the success and duration of organizations in the long term.
In employment
Nepotism at work can mean increased opportunity at a job, attaining a job or being paid more than other similarly situated people.
Arguments are made both for and against employment granted due to a family connection, which is most common in small,
family business. On one hand, nepotism can provide stability and continuity. Critics cite studies that demonstrate decreased morale and commitment from non-related employees,
and a generally negative attitude towards superior positions filled through nepotism. An article from
Forbes magazine stated, "there is no ladder to climb when the top rung is reserved for people with a certain name."
Employing intimate people favors perpetuating the ideas or goals of those who employ them, knowing that the people around them will hold them. However, it can lead to a lack of competent staff or a reduction in
productivity because even if the employees are not the best options for their functions, they will be protected by those who employ them.
Some businesses forbid nepotism as an ethical matter, considering it too troublesome and disruptive. Most Companies' Codes of Conduct include severe disciplinary sanctions for Conflicts of Interest. However, in Nepotistic practices, these are rarely observed or implemented.
In entertainment
Outside of national politics, accusations of "nepotism" are made in instances of
prima facie favoritism to relatives.
-
Peaches Geldof's role as magazine editor in an MTV reality show – produced by a company owned by her father Bob Geldof
-
Tori Spelling being cast on the TV series Beverly Hills, 90210 as a result of her father, Aaron Spelling's, involvement with the show.
-
Hollywood's Coppola family includes many distinguished filmmakers and actors. The careers of Sofia Coppola, Nicolas Cage, and Jason Schwartzman have been attributed to the aid of director Francis Ford Coppola. He cast his daughter Sofia in The Godfather Part III.
-
Ben Platt's role as high schooler Evan Hansen in the 2021 film adaptation of the musical Dear Evan Hansen as a result of his winning the Tony Award for Best Actor in a Musical for originating the role on Broadway in 2016, as well as the involvement of his father, Marc Platt, as one of the film's producers. The latter was never involved in the producing team of the stage version. The casting sparked controversy due to Ben Platt being ten years older than his character at the time of filming, resulting in critics and viewers deeming him too old to reprise his role.
-
New York magazine's December 2022 cover (calling 2022 'The Year of the Nepo baby') featured notable celebrities (Maude Apatow, Lily-Rose Depp, Maya Hawke, Dakota Johnson, Ben Platt, Jack Quaid, Zoë Kravitz, and John David Washington) whose career successes have been achieved through nepotism.
In sports
-
Thanasis Antetokounmpo has been labeled the beneficiary of nepotism due to his brother being Giannis Antetokounmpo, even though his play is deemed by some to not be good enough for him to occupy a roster spot on the Milwaukee Bucks.
-
The Los Angeles Lakers encountered allegations of nepotism when they selected Bronny James, the son of LeBron James, in the 2024 NBA draft. Although other NBA prospects exemplified greater promise, experts questioned Bronny's NBA readiness due to his lackluster performance during his only NCAA season. Reports revealed that LeBron's agent, Rich Paul, actively discouraged other teams from drafting Bronny, even going so far as to suggest that he might play overseas if selected.
In academia
Nepotism is in academia, where it is common for professors to have their partners, and sometimes children, hired by the same faculty in which they work.
In the second half of the 20th century, in the United States at least, this was far less frequent as universities typically held very strict anti-nepotism policies.
Countries with high levels of corruption and higher education systems with low competition between universities generally have higher levels of corruption in academia.
Italy has been noted for having particularly high levels of nepotism in its academic system, when compared to other developed nations.
Nepotism is often praised for favoring female employment in academia.
Selected examples by country
Argentina
In
Argentina, nepotism is a common practice. Although there have been various attempts at reducing it,
it is difficult in a country where state jobs are used as a token of gratitude or party favoritism.
Former president Mauricio Macri has been investigated for nepotism after allegedly extending a tax amnesty to his family.
The Kirchnerist movement has been openly accused of believing in nepotism, treating meritocracy as a pejorative concept.
On December 10, 2023, the libertarian president Javier Milei takes office – who campaigned criticizing the political "caste", an entelechy built to denigrate traditional political parties and among whose characteristics is that of appointing friends and family to public positions on a discretionary basis – and in one of his first measures he modifies the Mauricio Macri's Decree 93/2018 to be able to grant his sister, Karina Milei, the position of General Secretary of the Presidency.
Australia
Shortly after he was appointed the Anglican Archbishop of Sydney in 2001, Peter Jensen was accused, in an Australian Broadcasting Corporation interview, of nepotism after nominating his brother
Phillip Jensen as Dean of Sydney and appointing his wife Christine Jensen to an official position in the Sydney diocese.
Anna Bligh, who won the 2009 Queensland State election, has been accused of nepotism for giving her husband, Greg Withers, a position as the Office of Climate Change head.[Houghton, Des (28 June 2008). "Anna Bligh's Labor in trouble in the polls" Couriermail, 28 June 2008. Retrieved 17 August 2009.]
Football Federation Australia was led by Frank Lowy from its inception in 2004 until his term limit exit in 2015. His son, Steven Lowy, who had little direct involvement in high-level sports governance, was nominated as his replacement by Frank, and was elected unopposed by a board strongly loyal to Frank. Steven's introduction exacerbated existing governance issues, with factional opposition led by City Football Group causing FIFA intervention to be threatened. Eventually, governance reforms were forced through despite opposition from the Lowy family, and it ended with Steven Lowy resigning from the role. Lowy had also been accused of nepotism regarding his sons in his corporate dealings as the founder of Westfield Group.
Azerbaijan
On 21 February 2017, President of Azerbaijan
Ilham Aliyev created the position of Vice President of Azerbaijan, then appointed his wife,
Mehriban Aliyeva, to the position.
Since 1993, the presidency of Azerbaijan has always been in the hands of a member of the Aliyev family: in 1993,
Heydar Aliyev was elected president of Azerbaijan, and after his death in a United States hospital in 2003, his son Ilham Aliyev became president and has been since then. His regime has been accused of a lack of democratic freedoms and press freedom.
Belgium
Over the past decade, criticism has been growing over the creation of political dynasties in Belgium. This phenomenon has been explained by the fact that prominent party members control the ranking of candidates on party lists for elections and a candidate's place on a list determines who is elected. Another justification for the phenomenon is the importance of name recognition for collecting votes.
Claims of nepotism have been made against Bruno Tobback, the son of senator and former minister Louis Tobback, a member of the Flemish socialists. He became the Belgian federal government's minister for pensions and environment at 35 in 2005.
Brazil
In Brazil, nepotism heavily affects the integrity of public institutions, including audit bodies responsible for overseeing executive decisions. Studies indicate that around 30% of audit judges are directly related to other politicians, creating a network of familial ties that can lead to conflicts of interest and reduce the effectiveness of independent oversight (Transparency International, 2023).
This high rate of nepotism often results in biased audit outcomes, eroding public trust and obstructing fair governance. The presence of such familial networks within regulatory bodies not only compromises transparency but also perpetuates inefficiency and corruption, limiting reform efforts across Brazil's political landscape (Instituto Não Aceito Corrupção, 2022).
Cambodia
Prime Minister
Hun Sen and senior members of Parliament are known for their hand in getting family members into government positions. In the 2013 Cambodian parliamentary elections, at least eight candidates were sons of high-ranking Cambodian People's Party officials.
All sons of the ruling party lost but were eventually appointed to high-ranking government positions.
China
For the past 3,000 years, nepotism has been common in China's clan and extended family-based culture.
Confucius wrote about the importance of balancing "filial piety with merit". The
clan-based
feudal society collapsed during Confucius' lifetime, yet nepotism has continued through the modern age.
France
In October 2009,
Jean Sarkozy, the second son of the President of the French Republic,
Nicolas Sarkozy, was poised to become the director of the major authority despite lacking any higher education degree and professional experience.
In 2008, he was voted regional councillor of Neuilly-sur-Seine, the town of which his father had previously been mayor.
In September 2009, Rapping-producer Pierre Sarkozy, the first son of then-President Nicolas Sarkozy, asked for a financial contribution of around €10000 towards an €80000 artistic project. Because he was not an SCPP member, the request was automatically rejected. Pierre Sarkozy then went to the Élysée, which led to an Élysée aide contacting the SCPP, and SCPP president Marc Guez assuring the issue would soon be favorably resolved.
Greece
In Greece, it is common practice for family members of current or former party leaders to be party members and get appointed as ministers when the party is in government.
In addition, there have been three prime ministers from the Papandreou family,
two from the Mitsotakis family (one currently serving),
two from the Karamanlis family (a third one was serving as minister of transportation until February 2023, quitting his position following the worst rail disaster in the history of the country).
India
Research conducted found that in India, family CEOs are generally paid more than professional CEOs, especially in high-performing, eponymous firms. Additionally, family CEOs in these firms exhibit greater pay-performance sensitivity, benefiting more from strong performance while remaining insulated from poor outcomes. These findings indicate that CEO compensation can be used by controlling families in emerging markets as a tool to extract private benefits, often at the expense of minority shareholders.
Nepotism in Indian politics
Since the 1980s, Indian politics has become dynastic, possibly due to the absence of elected party organization, independent civil society associations that mobilize support for a party, and centralized financing of elections.
One example of dynastic politics has been the Nehru–Gandhi family, which produced three Indian prime ministers. Family members have also led the Congress Party for most of the period since 1978, when
Indira Gandhi floated the then Congress(I) faction of the party.
The ruling Bharatiya Janata Party also features several senior leaders who are dynasts.
Dynastic politics is prevalent also in a number of political parties with regional presence such as Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK), Indian National Lok Dal (INLD), Jammu & Kashmir National Conference (JKNC), Jammu and Kashmir Peoples Democratic Party (JKPDP), All India Majlis-e-Ittehadul Muslimeen (AIMIM), Desiya Murpokku Dravida Kazhagam (DMDK), Janata Dal (Secular) (JD(s)), Jannayak Janta Party (JJP) Jharkhand Mukti Morcha (JMM), National People's Party (NPP), Nationalist Congress Party (NCP), Pattali Makkal Katchi (PMK), Rashtriya Janata Dal (RJD), Rashtriya Lok Dal (RLD),
Samajwadi Party (SP), Shiromani Akali Dal (SKD), Shiv Sena (Uddhav Balasaheb Thackeray) (SS(UBT)), Bharat Rashtra Samithi (BRS), Yuvajana Shramika Rythu Congress Party (YSRCP) and Telugu Desam Party (TDP).
Judiciary
Many judges and advocates of the high courts and the Supreme Court of India are alleged to be appointed by exercising casteism, nepotism,
and favoritism, primarily due to the Supreme Court and the high court appointment process called
Collegium system which recommends to the President, in a legally binding manner, the names of judges to be appointed or promoted to the higher judiciary. The various judicial services exams are also infamous for these practices.
Indian film industry
The
Kapoor family,
one of the most prolific generational families involved in Indian cinema, have been known for bringing their children into the industry with their endorsements and influence.
In June 2020, a fresh debate on nepotism followed soon after the suicide of actor Sushant Singh Rajput,
which fans believe was in reaction to efforts by
Bollywood insiders to boycott him.
Filmmaker
Karan Johar, whom Rajput had worked in the
Netflix film
Drive (2019), was quickly accused of nepotism by actress
Kangana Ranaut, with Rajput's fans calling for a boycott of Johar and his studio, Dharma Productions, as well as of actor
Salman Khan and his brothers, who were accused of bullying outsiders in the past.
Actors and actresses
Alia Bhatt,
Varun Dhawan,
Janhvi Kapoor,
Ishaan Khatter,
Ananya Pandey,
Athiya Shetty,
Tiger Shroff,
Arjun Kapoor and Sara Ali Khan, all of whom hail from film families, were also widely criticized.
Indonesia
Suharto, Indonesia's second president, is involved in nepotism, alongside corruption and
collusion (together, they are known as the
KKN in ). Companies belonging to Suharto's children, particularly Siti Hardiyanti Rukmana ("Tutut"), Hutomo Mandala Putra ("Tommy"), and Bambang Trihatmodjo, were given lucrative government contracts and protected from market competition by monopolies. Examples include the toll-expressway company
Jasamarga (monopolized by Tutut), the national car project
Timor (monopolized by Bambang and Tommy), and the cinema market (monopolized by
21 Cineplex, which is owned by Suharto's cousin Sudwikatmono). The family is said to control about of real estate in Indonesia, including of prime office space in Jakarta and nearly 40% of the land in
East Timor. Additionally, Suharto's family members received free shares in 1,251 of Indonesia's most lucrative domestic companies (mostly run by Suharto's ethnic-Chinese cronies), while foreign-owned companies were encouraged to establish "strategic partnerships" with the former Indonesian president's family companies.
Mauritius
Nepotism is common in Mauritian politics, with many relatives and friends of high-ranking politicians being appointed to high-ranking positions and associated companies being granted government contracts.
Since the first democratic elections in 1948, the field of politics in Mauritius has been marked by a handful of families who have controlled the four major political parties which exist to this day. They are often referred to as the "modern dynasties" of Mauritian politics, such as the Duval, Bérenger, Curé, Uteem, Mohamed, Boolell, Ramgoolam and Jugnauth families. The Boolell family's involvement in politics started with Satcam Boolell in 1955, paving the way for his son Arvin Boolell, nephews Satish Boolell, Anil Gayan, and Sanjay Bhuckory, and son-in-law Sushil Kushiram to enter politics. The Duval dynasty started with ex-Lord mayor and minister Gaetan Duval, followed by his sons Xavier and Richard, as well as his grandson Adrien. Lall Jugnauth was the first of his clan to enter politics in the 1950s and was followed by his cousins Aneerood and Ashock as well as his nephew Pravind. Abdool Razack Mohamed, who migrated from India in the 1930s, became Lord Mayor and minister; his son, Yousuf and grandson, Shakeel, were also elected and served as ministers.
In March 2020, Harry Ganoo, the retired brother of Minister Alan Ganoo, was nominated as the new president of the Civil Service College Mauritius, a few months after the November 2019 General Elections.
Malaysia
The appointment of Nurul Izzah Anwar as a senior economic and finance advisor by Prime Minister
Anwar Ibrahim resulted in accusations of nepotism.
The action was widely criticized by intellectuals, NGOs and even party members of the Pakatan Harapan coalition, who claimed it contravened principles of merit and fairness.
Malta
Due to its small native population, Malta has an entrenched culture of nepotism, which became more evident since the country gained independence from the
British Empire in 1964.
In a Eurobarometer survey published in 2023, 55% of Maltese businesses reported that nepotism and patronage were primary problems, and 70% said close links between businesspeople and politicians led to corruption.
By comparison, only 37% of respondents in other EU member states saw nepotism and patronage as problematic, and 35% cited corruption as a concern.
Romania
Members of the Romanian Communist dictator Nicolae Ceaușescu's family dominated the country for decades.
Elena Băsescu, the daughter of President Traian Băsescu, was elected to the European Parliament in 2009, despite having no significant professional or political experience.
Singapore
Singapore's government has been the target of numerous charges of nepotism, with several members of the Prime Minister's family holding high-ranking posts. Lee Kuan Yew, who was prime minister from 1959 to 1990, preceded his son Lee Hsien Loong. Other family members holding high positions include the elder Lee's daughter, Lee Wei Ling, the director of the National Neurological Institute, his other son, Lee Hsien Yang, the chief executive officer of
Singtel from 1995 to 2007 and the younger Lee's wife,
Ho Ching, who was appointed chief executive officer of state holding investment company
Temasek Holdings. The family members dispute the charges as they arise.
Sri Lanka
Former President of Sri Lanka, Mahinda Rajapaksa, has been accused of nepotism, appointing three brothers to run important ministries and giving out other political positions to relatives, regardless of their merit. During his presidency, the Rajapaksa family held the ministries of finance,
defence minister, ports and aviation, and highways and road development. The president's brother, Gotabhaya Rajapaksa, was given the post of Defence Secretary. He also controlled the armed forces, the police and the Coast Guard, and was responsible for immigration and emigration. Rajapaksa appointed his brother
Basil Rajapaksa as Minister of Economic Development. Together, the Rajapaksa brothers controlled over 70% of Sri Lanka's public budget. Mahinda Rajapaksa's eldest brother,
Chamal Rajapaksa, was appointed as the Speaker of the Parliament of Sri Lanka, and has held many other posts before, while his eldest son, Namal Rajapaksa, is also a member of the parliament and holds undisclosed portfolios.
Others include his nephew, Shashindra Rajapaksa, the former Chief Minister of Uva; one of his cousins, Jaliya Wickramasuriya, the former Sri Lankan ambassador to the United States; and another cousin, Udayanga Weeratunga, the former ambassador to Russia. Dozens of nephews, nieces, cousins, and in-laws have also been appointed heads of banks, boards, and corporations.
Chandrika Kumaratunga, who served as the former president of Sri Lanka from 1994 to 2005 and former Prime Minister of Sri Lanka in 1994, is the daughter of S. W. R. D. Bandaranaike and Sirimavo Bandaranaike, who both served as Prime Ministers of Ceylon from 1956 to 1959, 1960 to 1965, 1970 to 1977 and 1994 to 2000. Her brother Anura Bandaranaike served as the Speaker of the Parliament of Sri Lanka from 2000 to 2001
Also, former president Ranasinghe Premadasa's son Sajith Premadasa is the Opposition leader of Sri Lanka, who ran for the presidential election in 2019 as well.
Also Ranil Wickremesinghe, who served as prime minister of Sri Lanka from 1993 to 1994, 2001 to 2004, 2015 to 2018 and 2018 to 2019, is a nephew of former Sri Lankan president J. R. Jayewardene.
Spain
Nepotism occurred in Spanish Colonial America when offices were given to family members.
This is an example.
Juan Antonio Samaranch Salisachs, son of Juan Antonio Samaranch (president of the International Olympic Committee (IOC) from 1980 to 2001), has been a member of the International Olympic Committee since 2001; his daughter, Maria Teresa Samaranch Salisachs, has been president of the Spanish Federation of Sports on Ice since 2005..[. ]
United Kingdom
The Marquess of Salisbury, who was Prime Minister for three separate occasions from 1885 to 1902 for a total of approximately 14 years, appointed his nephew,
Arthur Balfour, as Chief Secretary for Ireland in 1887 and later as Prime Minister in 1902. This is supposedly the origin of the phrase "Bob's your uncle".
In 1977, during his father-in-law James Callaghan's term as Prime Minister, Peter Jay was appointed Ambassador to the United States.
In February 2010, Sir Christopher Kelly, chairman of the Committee on Standards in Public Life, said that more than 200 MPs used Parliamentary allowances to employ their own relatives in a variety of office roles. He suggested that the practice should be banned.
North Yorkshire Police's Chief Constable Grahame Maxwell was disciplined by the IPCC in 2011, but refused to resign, after admitting that he assisted a relative through the first stages of a recruitment process.
Many Northern Irish politicians employ family members. In 2008, 19 elected politicians of the Democratic Unionist Party (DUP) directly employed family members and relatives, comprising 27 of its 136 staff.
Boris Johnson, the former Prime Minister, was accused of nepotism for having appointed his brother, Jo Johnson, to the House of Lords, having previously also appointed him to his Cabinet as Minister of State for Universities, Science, Research and Innovation.
In 2020, Kate Bingham, the wife of British Conservative Party politician and then-Financial Secretary to the Treasury Jesse Norman, was appointed chair of the UK's Vaccine Taskforce—the group set up to lead UK efforts to find and manufacture a COVID-19 vaccine — despite other more qualified people being proposed.
United States
Palm Beach County, Florida, schools reinforced nepotism rules as of 2012 to ensure an "equitable work environment".
In December 2012, a report from The Washington Post indicated various nepotism practices from the District of Columbia and Northern Virginia's Metropolitan Washington Airports Authority (MWAA), including one family with five members working for the MWAA. One of the reasons given by the associate general counsel to defend the alleged nepotism was "if the qualified and competed for the on their own, I don't see a problem with relatives working in the same organization."
Politics
President
John Adams appointed his son, John Quincy Adams, as the first United States Minister to Prussia.
Around 30 family members or relatives of President Ulysses S. Grant prospered financially in some way from either government appointments or employment.
President Franklin Roosevelt submitted the name of his son Elliott Roosevelt to the Senate for promotion to brigadier general. Following threats of resignation and pressure, Elliott Roosevelt was made a rated pilot during World War II. A suitable vacancy could not be found for him after his father's death, and his last day of service was VJ-Day. Franklin Roosevelt also appointed his son, James Roosevelt as an administrative assistant to the president and a secretary to the president. James Roosevelt was the White House coordinator for 18 federal agencies. Time magazine suggested that he might be considered "Assistant President of the United States".
President John F. Kennedy made his brother-in-law, Sargent Shriver, the first director of the Peace Corps and his brother, Robert F. Kennedy, Attorney General.
President Richard Nixon appointed John Eisenhower as United States Ambassador to Belgium. Richard Nixon was the father of Eisenhower's daughter-in-law.
In 1979, Bill Clinton, within weeks of being newly elected as Governor of Arkansas, appointed his wife, Hillary Clinton, to chair the Rural Health Advisory Committee.
In 2017, President Donald Trump was accused of nepotism after appointing both his son-in-law, Jared Kushner and his daughter Ivanka Trump (married to Kushner) into advisory roles to the president.
In 2024, President Joe Biden was accused of nepotism for pardoning his son Hunter Biden's federal felony gun and tax convictions, as well as any offense against the United States occurring between January 1, 2014 and December 1, 2024.
Legality
Current (since 1995)
US court rulings have held that the
White House itself does not constitute an "agency" for the purposes of adhering to existing anti-nepotism laws on the books.
Venezuela
Nepotism is known to be practiced by the President of the Venezuelan National Assembly,
Cilia Flores. Nine positions in the National Assembly were filled by Flores' family members, including a mother-in-law, aunt, three siblings, a cousin and her mother, and two nephews.
Zimbabwe
The late
Robert Mugabe was reported to be preparing his wife,
Grace Mugabe, to be the next president of Zimbabwe while he was president.
Types of partiality
Nepotism refers to partiality to family, whereas
cronyism refers to partiality to an associate or
friend. Favoritism, the broadest of the terms, refers to partiality based upon being part of a favored group, rather than job performance.
See also
Further reading
External links
