Product Code Database
Mountaineering, mountain climbing, or alpinism is a set of outdoor activities that involves ascending mountains. Mountaineering-related activities include traditional outdoor climbing, skiing, and traversing that have become mountain sports in their own right.Whitlock, W., Van Romer, K., & Becker, H. (1991). Nature Based Tourism: An Annotated Bibliography Clemson SC: Strom Thurmond Institute, Regional Development Group. Indoor climbing, sport climbing, and bouldering are also considered variants of mountaineering by some,Coalter, F., Dimeo, P., Morrow, S., & Taylor, J. (2010). The Benefits of Mountaineering and Mountaineering Related Activities: A Review of Literature. A Report to the Mountaineering Council of Scotland but are part of a wide group of .
Unlike most sports, mountaineering lacks widely applied formal rules, regulations, and governance; mountaineers adhere to a large variety of techniques and philosophies (including grading and guidebooks) when climbing mountains. Numerous local support mountaineers by hosting resources and social activities. A federation of alpine clubs, the International Climbing and Mountaineering Federation (UIAA), is the International Olympic Committee-recognized world organization for mountaineering and climbing. The consequences of mountaineering on the natural environment can be seen in terms of individual components of the environment (land relief, soil, vegetation, fauna, and landscape) and the location/zone of mountaineering activity (hiking, trekking, or climbing zone). Mountaineering impacts communities on economic, political, social and cultural levels, often leading to changes in people's worldviews influenced by globalization, specifically foreign cultures and lifestyles.
The famous poet Petrarch describes his 26 April 1336 ascent of Mount Ventoux () in one of his epistolae familiares, claiming to be inspired by Philip V of Macedon's ascent of Beklemeto Pass.
For most of antiquity, climbing mountains was a practical or symbolic activity, usually undertaken for economic, political, or religious purposes. A commonly cited example is the 1492 ascent of Mont Aiguille () by Antoine de Ville, a French military officer and lord of Domjulien and Beaupré. Because ropes, ladders and iron hooks were used, and because it was the first climb of any technical difficulty to be officially verified, this ascent is widely recognized as being the birth of mountaineering.
In the Andes, around the late 1400s and early 1500s, many ascents were made of extremely high peaks by the Incas and their subjects. The highest they are known for certain to have climbed is 6739 m at the summit of Volcan Llullaillaco. (2025). 9780792259121, National Geographic. ISBN 9780792259121
Conrad Gessner, A mid-16th Century physician, botanist and naturalist from Switzerland, is widely recognized as being the first person to hike and climb for sheer pleasure.
By the early 19th century, many of the Alps were reached, including the Grossglockner in 1800, the Ortler in 1804, the Jungfrau in 1811, the Finsteraarhorn in 1812, and the Breithorn in 1813. In 1808, Marie Paradis became the first woman to climb Mont Blanc, followed in 1838 by Henriette d'Angeville.
The beginning of mountaineering as a sport in the UK is generally dated to the ascent of the Wetterhorn in 1854 by English mountaineer Sir Alfred Wills, who made mountaineering fashionable in Britain. This inaugurated what became known as the Golden Age of Alpinism, with the first mountaineering club – the Alpine Club – being founded in 1857.
One of the most dramatic events was the spectacular first ascent of the Matterhorn in 1865 by a party led by English illustrator Edward Whymper, in which four of the party members fell to their deaths. By this point, the sport of mountaineering had largely reached its modern form, with a large body of professional guides, equipment, and methodologies. In the early years of the "golden age", scientific pursuits were intermixed with the sport, such as by the physicist John Tyndall. In the later years, it shifted to a more competitive orientation as pure sportsmen came to dominate the London-based Alpine Club and alpine mountaineering overall.Claire Eliane Engel (1950), A History of Mountaineering in the Alps, chapter VII. The first president of the Alpine Club, John Ball, is considered to be the discoverer of the Dolomites, which for decades were the focus of climbers like Paul Grohmann and Angelo Dibona. Die Besteigung der Berge – Die Dolomitgipfel werden erobert (German: The ascent of the mountains – the dolomite peaks are conquered) At that time, the edelweiss also established itself as a symbol of alpinists and mountaineers. Edelweiß, die Symbolpflanze der Alpen (German: Edelweiss, the symbolic plant of the Alps) Hermann Hinterstoisser: Das Edelweiß – Alpenblume mit Symbolkraft. In: Truppendienst, 2012, Nr. 5/329. Das Edelweiß
In 1897, Mount Saint Elias () on the Alaska-Yukon border was submitted by the Duke of the Abruzzi and party.
In 1879–1880, the exploration of the highest [[Andes]] in South America began when English mountaineer Edward Whymper climbed [[Chimborazo]] () and explored the mountains of Ecuador. It took until the late 19th century for European explorers to penetrate Africa. Mount Kilimanjaro in Africa was climbed in 1889 by Austrian mountaineer Ludwig Purtscheller and German geologist Hans Meyer, [[Mount Kenya]] in 1899 by Halford Mackinder.
In 1899, 1903, 1906, and 1908, American mountaineer Fanny Bullock Workman (one of the first professional female mountaineers) made ascents in the Himalayas, including one of the Nun Kun peaks (). A number of Gurkha sepoys were trained as expert mountaineers by Charles Granville Bruce, and a good deal of exploration was accomplished by them.
In 1902, the Eckenstein–Crowley Expedition, led by English mountaineer Oscar Eckenstein and English occultist Aleister Crowley was the first to attempt to scale K2. They reached before turning back due to weather and other mishaps. Undaunted, in 1905 Crowley led the first expedition to Kangchenjunga, the third highest mountain in the world, in an attempt which Isserman, Angas Weaver and Molenaar describe as "misguided" and "lamentable" due to Crowley's many failings as an expedition leader.
Eckenstein was also a pioneer in developing new equipment and climbing methods. He started using shorter ice axes that could be used single-handedly, designed the modern crampons, and improved on the nail patterns used for the climbing boots.
By the 1950s, all the but two had been climbed starting with Annapurna in 1950 by Maurice Herzog and Louis Lachenal on the 1950 French Annapurna expedition. The highest of these peaks Mount Everest was climbed in 1953 after the British had made several attempts in the 1920s; the 1922 expedition reached before being aborted on the third summit attempt after an avalanche killed seven porters. The 1924 expedition saw another height record achieved but still failed to reach the summit with confirmation when George Mallory and Andrew Irvine disappeared on the final attempt. The summit was finally reached on 29 May 1953 by Edmund Hillary and Tenzing Norgay from the south side in Nepal.
Just a few months later, Hermann Buhl made the first ascent of Nanga Parbat (8,125 m), on the 1953 German–Austrian Nanga Parbat expedition, completing the last 1,300 meters walking alone, self-medicating with pervitin (based on the stimulant methamphetamine used by soldiers during World War II), the vasodilator padutin, and a stimulant tea made from coca leaves. K2 (8,611m), the second-highest peak in the world, was first scaled in 1954 by Lino Lacedelli and Achille Compagnoni. In 1964, the final eight-thousander to be climbed was Shishapangma (8,013m), the lowest of all the 8,000-metre peaks. Reinhold Messner from the Dolomites mountain range (Italy) was then the first to climb all eight-thousanders up to 1986, in addition to being the first without supplemental oxygen. In 1978 he climbed Mount Everest with Peter Habeler without supplemental oxygen, the first men to do so.Messner, Reinhold (2002). Überlebt – Alle 14 Achttausender mit Chronik (in German).
.
Despite its lack of defined rules and non-competitive nature, certain aspects of mountaineering have much of the trappings of an organized sport, with recognition of specific climbing activities – including climbing wall-based competition – by the International Olympic Committee; on a club level, the prominent international sport federation the UIAA counts numerous national alpine clubs as its members, while others, such as The Mountaineers and the French Federation of Mountaineering and Climbing, remain independent.
The premier award in mountaineering is the privately granted Piolet d'Or, which has expanded from a single recognition to multiple. While there are many competitions, particularly in climbing wall disciplines, there are no "official" world championships or other similar competitions for mountaineering broadly.
Once anchored, the leader will then belay the climber coming up from below. Once the follower reaches the leader, the leader will often transfer all necessary protection devices (known as a rack) to the follower. The follower then becomes the leader and will ascend the next pitch. This process will continue until the climbers either reach the top, or run into different terrain.
For extremely vertical rocks, or to overcome certain logistical challenges, climbers may use aid climbing techniques. This involves the use of equipment, such as ladders, Fixed rope, and ascenders to help the climber push themself up the rock.
In alpine climbing, it is common for climbers to see routes of mixed terrain. This means climbers may need to move efficiently from climbing glacier, to rock, to ice, back and forth in a number of variations.
Ascending and descending a steep snow slope safely requires the use of an ice axe and different footwork techniques that have been developed over the past century, such as the French technique and German technique. Teams of climbers may choose to attach everyone together with a rope, to form a rope team. The team may then secure themselves by attaching the rope to anchors. These anchors are sometimes unreliable and include snow stakes or pickets, deadman devices called Snow fluke, or buried equipment or rocks. , which are simply carved out of consolidated snow or ice, also sometimes serve as anchors. Alternatively, a roped team may choose not to use anchors; instead, all members of the team will prepare to use their ice axes to self-arrest in the event should a team member fall.
It is not always wise for climbers to form a rope team, since one falling climber may pull the entire team off the mountain. However, the risks of individual, unprotected travel are often so great that groups have no choice but to form a rope team.
For example, when traveling over , pose a grave danger to a climber who is not roped in. These giant cracks in the ice are not always visible as snow can be blown and freeze over the top to make a snowbridge. At times snowbridges can be as thin as a few inches and may collapse from people walking over them. Should a climber fall, being protected by a rope greatly reduces the risk of injury or death. The other members of the rope team may proceed with a crevasse rescue to pull the fallen climber from the crevasse.
For extremely slippery or steep snow, ice, and mixed rock and ice terrain climbers must use more advanced techniques, called ice climbing or mixed climbing. Specialized tools such as and help climbers build anchors and move up the ice, as well as traditional rock climbing equipment for anchoring in mixed terrain. Often, mountaineers climbing steep snow or mixed snowy rock terrain will not use a fixed belay. Instead, each climber on the team will climb at the same time while attached to anchors, in groups of two. This allows for safety should the entire team be taken off their feet which also allows for greater speed than the traditional technique of belaying one climber at a time. This technique is known as simul-climbing or a running belay and is sometimes also used on ice, however, the risk of dropping frequently displaced ice on the lower team member(s) limits its usefulness on ice. Traditional belays are also used; in this case, this is sometimes necessary due to ice fall hazard, steepness, or other factors.
Short trips lasting less than a day generally do not require shelter, although for safety, most mountaineers will carry an emergency shelter, such as a light Bivouac shelter.
In remote locations, mountaineers will set up a "base camp", which is an area used for staging attempts at nearby summits. Base camps are positioned to be relatively safe from harsh terrain and weather. Where the summit cannot be reached from base camp in a single day, a mountain will have additional camps above base camp. For popular mountains, base camps may be at a fixed location and become famous. The Everest base camps and Camp Muir are among the most famous base camps.
The European alpine regions, in particular, have a large network of huts. Such huts exist at many different heights, including in the high mountains themselves – in extremely remote areas, more rudimentary shelters may exist. The mountain huts are of varying size and quality, but each is typically centred on a communal dining room and have dormitories equipped with mattresses, blankets or duvets, and pillows; guests are expected to bring and use their own sleeping bag liners. The facilities are usually rudimentary, but, given their locations, huts offer vital shelter, make routes more widely accessible (by allowing journeys to be broken and reducing the weight of equipment needing to be carried), and offer good value. In Europe, all huts are staffed during the summer (mid-June to mid-September) and some are staffed in the spring (mid-March to mid-May). Elsewhere, huts may also be open in the fall. Huts also may have a part that is always open, but unstaffed, a so-called winter hut.
When open and staffed, the huts are generally run by full-time employees, but some are staffed on a voluntary basis by members of alpine clubs. The manager of the hut, termed a guardian or warden in Europe, will usually also sell refreshments and meals, both to those visiting only for the day and to those staying overnight. The offering is surprisingly wide, given that most supplies, often including fresh water, must be flown in by helicopter, and may include glucose-based snacks (such as candy bars) on which climbers and walkers wish to stock up, cakes and pastries made at the hut, a variety of hot and cold drinks (including beer and wine), and high carbohydrate dinners in the evenings. Not all huts offer a catered service, though, and visitors may need to provide for themselves. Some huts offer facilities for both, enabling visitors wishing to keep costs down to bring their own food and cooking equipment and to cater using the facilities provided. Booking for overnight stays at huts is deemed obligatory, and in many cases is essential as some popular huts, even with more than 100 bed spaces, may be full during good weather and at weekends. Once made, the cancellation of a reservation is advised as a matter of courtesy – and, indeed, potentially of safety, as many huts keep a record of where climbers and walkers state they plan to walk to next. Most huts may be contacted by telephone and most take credit cards as a means of payment.
In the UK, the term "hut" is used for any cottage or cabin used as a base for walkers or climbers. These are mostly owned by mountaineering clubs for use by members or visiting clubs and generally do not have wardens or permanent staff, but have cooking and washing facilities and heating. In the Scottish Highlands small simple unstaffed shelters without cooking facilities known as Bothy are maintained to break up cross country long routes and act as base camps to certain mountains.
In terms of objective hazards, the dangers mountaineers face includes loose or falling rocks, falling ice, snow-, the climber falling, falls from ice slopes, falls down snow slopes, falls into crevasses, and the dangers from altitude and weather.
From 1947 to 2018, in the United States "2,799 people were reported to be involved in mountaineering accidents and 43% of these accidents resulted in death." Climbers themselves are responsible for nearly all climbing accidents.
When planning and preparing for a trip, safe climbers know what hazards to look for and how to recognize them. In situations where hazards are not able to be avoided, the climber must use their decision-making skills to Mitigation those hazards. Climbers improve upon their ability to become a safe decision maker and recognize hazards by receiving proper education, training, practice, and experience as well as learning how to spot personal bias.
Common symptoms of altitude sickness include severe headache, sleep problems, nausea, lack of appetite, lethargy and body ache. Mountain sickness may progress to HACE (high-altitude cerebral edema) and HAPE (high-altitude pulmonary edema), both of which can be fatal within 24 hours.
In high mountains, atmospheric pressure is lower and this means that less oxygen is available to breathe. This is the underlying cause of altitude sickness. Everyone needs to Acclimatization, even exceptional mountaineers that have been to high altitude before. Generally speaking, mountaineers start using bottled oxygen when they climb above 7,000 m. Exceptional mountaineers have climbed Eight-thousander (including Mount Everest) without oxygen, almost always with a carefully planned program of acclimatisation.
Problems that can arise from this type of exposure include heat cramps, heat exhaustion, and heat stroke. Common symptoms of heat exhaustion include headaches, cool and clammy skin, dizziness, fatigue, nausea, thirst, and rapid pulse. The best treatment is resting with feet elevated, replenishing fluids, and removing excess clothing.
Common symptoms of heat stroke can be an altered state of mind, rapid pulse and respiratory rate, headache, hot skin, loss of coordination, and possible seizures. This is a life-threatening illness that must be dealt with right away. While mountaineering, snow and ice can be used to cool the body and head.
Problems that can arise from the cold include wind chill, hypothermia, frost nip, frostbite, and immersion foot.
The best treatment for hypothermia is to deal with it before it occurs, using preventative measures instead of waiting for symptoms to appear. Mountaineering requires a slower pace to avoid sweating and fatigue that could lead to these dangerous conditions. Other tips for preventing hypothermia include staying well fed and hydrated, putting on more clothes when feeling cold, and wearing adequate equipment to keep warm and dry.
Research in psychology supports these claims of transcendence. Elite mountaineers and BASE jumping score highly in traits related to self transcendence, personality features associated with spirituality, mindfulness, and a search for meaning. Specifically, they highlight three key character traits associated with self transcendence: self directedness or a sense of purpose, cooperativeness meaning empathy and a sense of connectedness with others, and self transcendence itself or the capacity to feel part of something greater than oneself, often expressed through spiritual or mystical experience.These traits help explain why some individuals are drawn to high-risk, high-reward experiences that facilitate altered states of consciousness and deep reflection.
The motivations behind seeking these high risk situations through mountaineering are often rooted in a sense of personal calling. Climbers articulate their drive not simply as thrill seeking but as a vocation, and pursuing a spiritually fulfilling, to feel something close to destiny, purpose, and alignment with one’s deeper self. This supports earlier work that revealed that climbers often experience spiritual growth, emotional release, and a stronger sense of self through their expeditions.
Much of this is due to the way mountains have long been regarded as sacred in numerous cultures, and seen as bridges between the earthly and the divine. This perception continues in modern mountaineering, where the act of climbing is sometimes likened to a pilgrimage. The experience is not solely about physical conquest but about spiritual engagement with the mountain landscape, often resulting in a reverent relationship with nature.
Flow states as periods of deep focus and loss of time awareness are commonly reported by climbers. These states are central to the appeal of alpinism, providing psychological clarity and a sense of unity with the environment. Such experiences can be transformative, allowing climbers to tap into a higher sense of presence and well-being.
The stories of climbers like Marc-André Leclerc and Alex Honnold illustrate these spiritual and psychological themes. Leclerc was known for his minimalist and solitary style, with many regarding him as a “pure spirit” of the climbing world. In interviews, he spoke about the meditative nature of free solo climbing and his sense of harmony with the mountains. Honnold, famous for his ropeless ascent of El Capitan, has been the subject of psychological profiles that explore his unique risk tolerance and mental discipline. His climbing has been framed as a form of mindfulness practice that challenges conventional understandings of fear and focus.
Alpinism encompasses more than physical accomplishment, but is often a gateway to inner exploration, emotional catharsis, and spiritual insight. Whether understood through scientific studies or personal narratives, the motivations behind alpinism frequently include a desire for transcendence, connection, and meaning beyond the summit.
Heat-related conditions
Exposure to hot environments or activities involving exertion cause heat to build up in the body. A heat-related illness can occur when the body is unable to lose that heat through the skin.
Cold-related conditions
In certain environmental conditions body heat can be lost due to evaporation, radiation, convection, and conduction. A cold-related illness can occur when that body heat is lost.
Motivations and Spiritual Dimensions
Alpinism, beyond its physical and technical demands, serves as a deeply personal and often spiritual pursuit. Many climbers describe their experiences in the mountains as moments of transformation, transcendence, and profound meaning. The solitude of high altitude environments, the exposure to natural elements, and the life or death stakes frequently encountered can bring climbers face to face with existential questions, bringing a sense of connection to forces larger than themselves.
Styles of mountaineering
There are two main styles of mountaineering: expedition style and alpine style.
Expedition style
The alpine style contrasts with "expedition style". With this style, climbers will carry large amounts of equipment and provisions up and down the mountain, slowly making upward progress. Climbing in an expedition style is preferred if the summit is very high or distant from civilization. Mountaineers who use this style are usually, but not always, part of a large team of climbers and support staff (such as porters and guides). To cover large distances with their massive amounts of gear, sleds and pack animals are commonly used. Climbers will set up multiple camps along the mountain, and will haul their gear up the mountain multiple times, returning to a lower camp after each haul until all the gear is at a higher camp; and repeating this procedure until they reach the summit. This technique is also helpful for acclimatization. While it is the original style in which high mountains were climbed, expedition style is rare these days as more mountains have become accessible to the general public with air travel and the penetration of highways into mountainous regions. It is still common in ranges such as the Alaska Range and the Himalayas.
Alpine style
Alpine style, or informal variations of it, is the most common form of mountaineering today. It involves a single, straightforward climb of the mountain, with no backtracking. This style is most suited for medium-sized mountain areas close to civilization with elevations of , such as the Alps or the Rocky Mountains. Alpine style ascents have been done throughout history on extreme altitude (above 5,000 m) peaks also, albeit in lower volume to expedition style ascents. Climbers generally carry their loads between camps without backtracking, in a single push for the summit. If the summit is reachable from the base camp or trailhead within one day, then alpine-style mountaineers will not change camps at all, and only carry the slightest of loads (necessary nourishment and equipment) up to the summit. "Light and fast" is the mantra of the alpine mountaineer.
See also
Further reading
(2025). 9780300164206, Yale University Press. ISBN 9780300164206
External links
target="_blank" rel="nofollow"> Military Mountaineering, Army Field Manual FM 3–97.61 (Aug 2002) − Federation of American Scientists (PDF)
|
|
