In philosophy and theology, metempsychosis () is the transmigration of the soul, especially its reincarnation after death. The term is derived from ancient Greek philosophy, and has been recontextualized by modern philosophers such as Arthur Schopenhauer,[Schopenhauer, A: "Parerga und Paralipomena" (Eduard Grisebach edition), On Religion, Section 177] Kurt Gödel,[Nietzsche and the Doctrine of Metempsychosis, in J. Urpeth & J. Lippitt, Nietzsche and the Divine, Manchester: Clinamen, 2000] Another term sometimes used synonymously is palingenesis.
Orphism
A belief in metempsychosis has been associated with
Orphism, the name given to a religious movement said in antiquity to have been founded by the legendary poet
Orpheus. Orphism is said to hold that soul and body are united by a contract unequally binding on either. The soul is divine but immortal and aspires to freedom, while the body holds it in fetters as a prisoner. Death dissolves that contract but only to reimprison the liberated soul after a short time, for the wheel of birth revolves inexorably. Thus, the soul continues its journey and alternates between a separate unrestrained existence and a fresh reincarnation around the wide circle of necessity, as the companion of many bodies of men and animals. To those unfortunate prisoners, Orpheus proclaims the message of liberation, that they stand in need of the grace of redeeming gods,
Dionysus in particular, and calls them to turn to the gods by ascetic piety and self-purification: the purer their lives, the higher their next reincarnation will be, until the soul has completed the spiral ascent of destiny to live forever as a God from whom it comes.
[Linforth, Ivan M. (1941) The Arts of Orpheus Arno Press, New York, ][Long, Herbert S. (1948) A Study of the doctrine of metempsychosis in Greece, from Pythagoras to Plato (Long's 1942 PhD dissertation) Princeton, New Jersey, ][Long, Herbert S. (16 February 1948) "Plato's Doctrine of Metempsychosis and Its Source" The Classical Weekly 41(10): pp. 149–155]
Pre-Socratic philosophy
The earliest Greek thinker with whom metempsychosis is connected is Pherecydes of Syros,
[Schibli, S., Hermann, Pherekydes of Syros, p. 104, Oxford Univ. Press 2001] but
Pythagoras, who is said to have been his pupil, is its first famous philosophic exponent.
Walter Burkert has argued that Pythagoras may have introduced metempsychosis to Orphism.
He suggests that modern scholarship's tendency to separate Orphism from early Pythagoreanism is a retrojection, possibly of Nietzschean ideas about the opposition of the Apollonian (associated with Pythagoreanism) and the
Dionysian (associated with Orphism), whereas for the Greeks, Apollo and Dionysus were brothers and not so clearly differentiated. Pythagoras offered as evidence for metempsychosis his own recollection of past lives, a superhuman form of wisdom that contributed to his reputation as a prophet.
Platonic philosophy
The weight and importance of metempsychosis in the Western tradition are from its adoption by
Plato.
In the
Eschatology myth that closes the
Republic, he tells how Er, the son of Armenius, miraculously returned to life on the twelfth day after death and recounted the secrets of the other world. After death, he said, he went with others to the place of Judgment and saw the souls returning from heaven, and proceeded with them to a place where they chose new lives, human and animal. He saw the soul of Orpheus changing into a swan,
Thamyras becoming a nightingale, musical birds choosing to be men, and
Atalanta choosing the honours of an athlete. Men were seen passing into animals and wild and tame animals changing into each other. After their choice, the souls drank of
Lethe and then shot away like stars to their birth. There are myths and theories to the same effect in other dialogues, including the
Phaedrus,
Meno,
Phaedo,
Timaeus, and
Laws. In Plato's view the number of souls was fixed; souls are never created or destroyed but only transmigrate from one body to another.
["That is the conclusion, I said; and if a true conclusion, then the souls must always be the same, for if none be destroyed they will not diminish in number." Republic X, 611. The Republic of Plato By Plato, Benjamin Jowett Edition: 3 Published by Clarendon Press, 1888.] Origen's doctrine of the preexistence of souls was close to Plato's idea of metempsychosis and was frequently attacked, including by Augustine of Hippo and Aeneas of Gaza.
Modern
Scholars have debated the extent of Plato's belief in metempsychosis since at least the
Renaissance.
Marsilio Ficino argued that Plato's references to metempsychosis were intended to be allegorical.
[See Platonic Theology 17.3–4.] Modern scholars, including Chad Jorgensen and Gerard Naddaf, have tended to agree with Ficino.
[Jorgensen 2018: 199 says that Plato's eschatological accounts are "much better suited to a creative discourse aimed at capturing the imagination of a particular audience than to an attempt to describe an independently existing reality." See Jorgensen, Chad. The Embodied Soul in Plato's Later Thought. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2018.
]
Naddaf 2016: 113 says that this part of Plato's thinking can be represented "only by eschatological or cosmological myths. It is inaccessible to explanation." See Naddaf, Gerard. "Poetic Myths of the Afterlife: Plato's Last Song," Reflections on Plato's Poetics: Essays from Beijing. Academic Printing and Publishing: Berrima, NSW, 2016, 111–136.
"Metempsychosis" is the title of a longer work by the metaphysical poet John Donne, written in 1601.[Collins, Siobhán (2005) "Bodily Formations and Reading Strategies in John Donne's Metempsychosis" Critical Studies 26: pp. 191–208, page 191] The poem, also known as the Infinitati Sacrum,[ full text of Metempsychosis or Infinitati Sacrum from Luminarium Editions] consists of two parts, the "Epistle" and "The Progress of the Soule". In the first line of the latter part, Donne writes that he "sings of the progresse of a deathlesse soule".
Metempsychosis is a recurring theme in James Joyce's modernism novel Ulysses (1922).
See also
External links
