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The lentil ( Vicia lens or Lens culinaris) is an annual plant legume grown for its lens-shaped edible or pulses, also called lentils. It is about tall, and the seeds grow in Legume, usually with two seeds in each.
Lentil seeds are used around the world for culinary purposes. In cuisines of the Indian subcontinent, where lentils are a staple food, split lentils (often with their hulls removed) known as dal are often cooked into a thick curry that is usually eaten with rice or roti. Lentils are commonly used in stews and soups.
The former genus Lens consisted of the cultivated L. culinaris and six related wild taxa. Among the different taxa of wild lentils, L. orientalis was considered to be the progenitor of the cultivated lentil and was generally classified as L. culinaris subsp. orientalis.
Lentil is hypogeal, which means the of the germinating seed stay in the ground and inside the seed coat. Therefore, it is less vulnerable to frost, wind erosion, or insect attack.
The plant is a diploid, annual, bushy herb of erect, semierect, or spreading and compact growth and normally varies from in height. It has many hairy branches and its stem is slender and angular. The rachis bears 10 to 15 leaflets in five to eight pairs. The leaves are alternate, of oblong-linear and obtuse shape and from yellowish green to dark bluish green in colour. In general, the upper leaves are converted into tendrils, whereas the lower leaves are mucronate. If are present, they are small. The flowers, one to four in number, are small, white, pink, purple, pale purple, or pale blue in colour. They arise from the axils of the leaves, on a slender footstalk almost as long as the leaves. The pods are oblong, slightly inflated, and about long. Normally, each of them contains two seeds, about in diameter, in the characteristic lens shape. The seeds can also be mottled and speckled. The several cultivated varieties of lentil differ in size, hairiness, and colour of the leaves, flowers, and seeds.
Lentils are self-pollinating. The flowering begins from the lowermost buds and gradually moves upward, so-called acropetal flowering. About two weeks are needed for all the flowers to open on the single branch. At the end of the second day and on the third day after the opening of the flowers, they close completely and the colour begins to fade. After three to four days, the setting of the pods takes place.
Red-cotyledon types:
Small green/brown-seed coat types:
Medium green/brown-seed coat types
Large green/brown-seed coat types:
Other types:
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In 2022, global production of lentils was 6.7 million . Canada produced the largest share, 2.2 million tonnes, or roughly 34% of the world's total output (table), nearly all (95%) of it in Saskatchewan. India was the world's second-largest producer, led by the states of Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh, which together account for roughly 70 percent of the national lentil production.
Lentil was domesticated in the Fertile Crescent of the Near East and then spread to Europe and North Africa and the Indo-Gangetic plain. The primary center of diversity for the domestic Vicia lens as well as its wild progenitor V. lens ssp. lamottei is considered to be the Middle East. The oldest known carbonized remains of lentil from Greece's Franchthi Cave are dated to 11,000 BC. In archaeobotanical excavations carbonized remains of lentil seeds have been recovered from widely dispersed places such as Tell Ramad in Syria (6250–5950 BC), Aceramic Beidha in Jordan, Hacilar in Turkey (5800–5000 BC), Tepe Sabz (Ita. Tepe Sabz) in Iran (5500–5000 BC) and Argissa-Magula Tessaly in Greece (6000–5000 BC), along other places.
Lentils improve the physical properties of soils and increase the yield of succeeding cereal crops. Biological nitrogen fixation or other rotational effects could be the reason for higher yields after lentils .
The plant densities for lentils vary between , seed size, planting time and growing conditions, and also from region to region. In South Asia, a seed rate of is recommended. In West Asian countries, a higher seed rate is recommended, and also leads to a higher yield. The seeds should be sown deep. In agriculturally mechanized countries, lentils are planted using Seed drill, but many other areas still hand broadcast.
A major part of the world's red lentil production undergoes a secondary processing step. These lentils are Husk, split and polished. In the Indian subcontinent, this process is called dal milling. The moisture content of the lentils prior to dehulling is crucial to guarantee a good dehulling efficiency. The hull of lentils usually accounts for 6 to 7 percent of the total seed weight, which is lower than most legumes. Lentil flour can be produced by milling the seeds, like cereals.
They are frequently combined with rice, which has a similar cooking time. A lentil and rice dish is referred to in Levantine countries as mujaddara or mejadra. In Iran, rice and lentil is served with fried raisin; this dish is called Lentil rice ( adas polo). Rice and lentils are also cooked together in khichdi, a popular dish in the Indian subcontinent (India and Pakistan); another dish, kushari, made in Egypt, is considered one of two .
Lentils are used to prepare an inexpensive and nutritious Lentil soup throughout Europe and Americas, sometimes combined with chicken or pork. In Western countries, cooked lentils are often used in salads. In Italy, the traditional dish for New Year's Eve is Cotechino served with lentils.
Lentils are commonly eaten in Ethiopia in a stew-like dish called misir, or misir wot, one of the dishes people eat with Ethiopia's national food, injera flatbread.
Lentils were a chief part of the diet of ancient Iranians, who consumed lentils daily in the form of a stew poured over rice.
Lentils also have antinutrient factors, such as trypsin inhibitors and a relatively high phytate content. Trypsin is an enzyme involved in digestion, and phytates reduce the bioavailability of dietary minerals. The phytates can be reduced by prolonged soaking and fermentation or sprouting. Cooking nearly completely removes the trypsin inhibitor activity; sprouting is also effective.
The focus lies on high yielding and stable cultivars for diverse environments to match the demand of a growing population. In particular, progress in quantity and quality as well as in the resistance to disease and abiotic stresses are the major breeding aims. Several varieties have been developed applying conventional breeding methodologies. Serious genetic improvement for yield has been made, however, the full potential of production and productivity could not yet be tapped due to several biotic and abiotic stresses.
Wild Lens species are a significant source of genetic variation for improving the relatively narrow genetic base of this crop. The wild species possess many diverse traits including disease resistances and abiotic stress tolerances. The above-mentioned L. nigricans and L. orientalis possess morphological similarities to the cultivated L. culinaris. But only L. culinaris and L. culinaris subsp. orientalis are crossable and produce fully fertile seed. Between the different related species hybridisation barriers exist. According to their inter-crossability Lens species can be divided into three gene pools:
Crosses generally fail between members of different gene pools. However, Plant hormone and/or embryo rescue allows the growth of viable hybrids between groups. Even if crosses are successful, many undesired genes may be introduced as well in addition to the desired ones. This can be resolved by using a backcrossing programme. Thus, mutagenesis is crucial to create new and desirable varieties. According to Yadav et al. other biotechnology techniques which may impact on lentil breeding are Micropropagation using meristamatic explants, callus culture and regeneration, protoplast culture and doubled haploid production.
There is a proposed revision of the gene pools using SNP phylogeny.
Cultivation
History
The cultivated lentil Vicia lens subsp. lens was derived from its wild subspecies V. lens subsp. lamottei, although other species may also have contributed some genes, according to Jonathan Sauer ( Historical Geography of Crop Plants, 2017). Unlike their wild ancestors, domesticated lentil crops have indehiscent pods and non-dormant seeds.
Soil requirements
Lentils can grow on various soil types, from sand to clay loam, growing best in deep sandy loam soils with moderate fertility. A soil pH around 7 would be the best. Lentils do not tolerate flooding or water-logged conditions.
(2025). 9781402063121, Springer Verlag. ISBN 9781402063121
Climate requirements
The conditions under which lentils are grown differ across different growing regions. In the temperate climates lentils are planted in the winter and spring under low temperatures and vegetative growth occurs in later spring and the summer. Rainfall during this time is not limited. In the subtropics, lentils are planted under relatively high temperatures at the end of the rainy season, and vegetative growth occurs on the residual soil moisture in the summer season. Rainfall during this time is limited. In Western Asia and North Africa, some lentils are planted as a winter crop before snowfall. Plant growth occurs during the time of snow melting. Under such cultivation, seed yields are often much higher.
Seedbed requirements and sowing
The lentil requires a firm, smooth seedbed with most of the previous incorporated. For the seed placement and for later harvesting it is important that the surface is not uneven with large clods, stones, or protruding crop residue. It is also important that the soil be made friable and weed-free, so that seeding can be done at a uniform depth.
Cultivation management, fertilization
In Intercropping – a practice commonly used in lentil cultivation – may be needed to assure crop health. Like many other legume crops, lentils can fix atmospheric nitrogen in the soil with specific rhizobia. Lentils grow well under low fertilizer input conditions, although phosphorus, nitrogen, potassium, and sulfur may be used for nutrient-poor soils.
Diseases
Below is a list of the most common lentil diseases.
Fungal diseases
+ Fungal diseases Alternaria blight Anthracnose Aphanomyces root rot Aphanomyces euteiches Ascochyta blight
Black root rot Fusarium solani Black streak root rot Thielaviopsis basicola Botrytis gray mold Botrytis cinerea Cercospora leaf spot Collar rot
Cylindrosporium leaf spot and stem canker Cylindrosporium sp. Downy mildew Dry root rot
Fusarium wilt Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. lentis Helminthosporium leaf spot Helminthosporium sp. Leaf rot Choanephora sp. Leaf yellowing Cladosporium herbarum Ozonium wilt Ozonium texanum var. parasiticum Phoma leaf spot Phoma medicaginis Powdery mildew
Pythium root and seedling rot Rust
Sclerotinia stem rot Sclerotinia sclerotiorum Spot blotch Bipolaris sorokiniana Stemphylium blight
Wet root rot
Nematodes, parasitic
+ Nematodes, parasitic Cyst nematode Heterodera ciceri Reniform nematode Rotylenchulus reniformis Root knot nematode Root lesion nematode Pratylenchus spp. Stem nematode Ditylenchus dipsaci
Viral diseases
+Viral diseases Bean (pea) leaf roll virus Beet western yellows virus Bean yellow mosaic Bean yellow mosaic virus Broad bean mottle Broad bean mottle virus Broad bean stain Broad bean stain virus Cucumber mosaic Cucumber mosaic virus Pea seedborne mosaic Pea seed-borne mosaic virus
Use by humans
Processing
A combination of gravity, screens and air flow is used to clean and sort lentils by shape and density. After destoning, they may be separated by a color sorter and then packaged.
Culinary use
Lentils can be eaten soaked, germinated, fried, baked or boiled – the most common preparation method. The seeds require a cooking time of 10 to 40 minutes, depending on the variety; small varieties with the husk removed, such as the common red lentil, require shorter cooking times (and unlike most legumes don't require soaking). Most varieties have a distinctive, earthy flavor. Lentils with husks remain whole with moderate cooking, while those without husks tend to disintegrate into a thick purée, which may enable various dishes. The composition of lentils leads to a high Emulsion capacity which can be even increased by dough fermentation in bread making.
Lentil dishes
Lentils are used worldwide in many different dishes. Lentil dishes are most widespread throughout South Asia, the Mediterranean regions, West Asia, and Latin America. (lentil soup)]]
In the Indian subcontinent, Fiji, Mauritius, Singapore and the Caribbean, lentil curry is part of the everyday diet, eaten with both rice and roti. Boiled lentils and lentil stock are used to thicken most vegetarian curries. They are also used as stuffing in dal and puri for breakfast or snacks. Lentils are also used in many regional varieties of sweets. Lentil flour is used to prepare several different bread varieties, such as papadam.
Nutritional value
Boiled lentils are 70% water, 20% , 9% protein, and 0.4% fat (table). In a reference amount of , cooked lentils (boiled; variety unspecified) provide 114 , and are a rich source (20% or more of the Daily Value, DV) of folate (45% DV), iron (25% DV), manganese (24% DV), and phosphorus (26% DV). They are a good source (10% DV) of thiamine (15% DV), pantothenic acid (13% DV), vitamin B6 (14% DV), magnesium (10% DV), copper (13% DV), and zinc (13%) (table). Lentils contain , lutein and zeaxanthin, and polyunsaturated fatty acids.
Digestive effects
The low levels of readily digestible starch (5 percent) and high levels of slowly digested starch make lentils of potential value to people with diabetes. The remaining 65% of the starch is a resistant starch classified as RS1.Kawaljit Singh Sandhu, Seung-Taik Lim Digestibility of legume starches as influenced by their physical and structural properties Elsevier, 16 March 2007 A minimum of 10% in starch from lentils escapes digestion and absorption in the small intestine (therefore called "resistant starch"). Additional resistant starch is synthesized from gelatinized starch, during cooling, after lentils are cooked.
Breeding
Although lentils have been an important crop for centuries, lentil breeding and genetic research have a relatively short history compared to that of many other crops. Since the inception of The International Center for Agriculture Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA) breeding programme in 1977 significant gains have been made. It supplies landraces and breeding lines for countries around the world, supplemented by other programmes in both developing (e.g. India) and developed (e.g. Australia and Canada) countries. In recent years, such collaborations among breeders and agronomists are becoming increasingly important.
See also
Further reading
External links
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