Product Code Database
Insects as food or edible insects are insect species used for human consumption. Over 2 billion people are estimated to eat insects on a daily basis. Globally, more than 2,000 insect species are considered edible, though far fewer are discussed for industrialized mass production and regionally authorized for use in food. Many insects are highly nutritious, though nutritional content depends on species and other factors such as diet and age. Insects offer a wide variety of flavors and are commonly consumed whole or pulverized for use in dishes and Food processing such as burger patties, pasta, or snacks. Like other foods, there can be risks associated with consuming insects, such as allergic reactions. As commercial interest in insects as food grows, countries are introducing new regulatory frameworks to oversee their production, processing, marketing, and consumption.
The table below ranks insect order by number and percentage of confirmed species consumed and presents each insect orders' percentage of known insect species diversity. With the exceptions of orders Orthoptera and Fly, there is close alignment between species diversity and consumption, suggesting that humans tend to eat those insects that are most available.
| +Human insect consumption by taxonomic order !Insect order !Common name !Number of confirmed species consumed by humans !Percentage of insect species consumed by humans (%) !Percentage of total insect species (%) | ||||
| Beetle | Beetles | 705 | 33 | 32 |
| Hymenoptera | Bees, wasps, ants | 341 | 15 | 15.5 |
| Lepidoptera | Butterflies, moths | 335 | 17 | 15.2 |
| Orthoptera | Grasshoppers, locusts, crickets | 310 | 13 | 14.1 |
| Hemiptera | Cicadas, leafhoppers, planthoppers, scale insects, true bugs | 251 | 11 | 11.4 |
| Isoptera | Termites | 76 | 3.4 | |
| Odonata | Dragonflies | 54 | 3 | 2.4 |
| Diptera | Flies | 39 | 1.8 | |
| Ephemeroptera | Mayflies | 11 | 1.7 | |
| Plecoptera | Stoneflies | 9 | 0.4 | |
| Trichoptera | Caddisflies | 8 | 0.4 | |
| Phasmida | Walking Sticks | 7 | 0.3 | |
| Megaloptera | Alderflies, dobsonflies, fishflies | 4 | 0.2 | |
| Psocoptera | Booklice | 1 | 0.05 | |
| Dermaptera | Earwigs | 1 | 0.05 | |
/ref> as well as large-scale insect food producers such as Entomofarms in Canada, Aspire Food Group in the United States, Protifarm and Protix in the Netherlands, and Bühler Group in Switzerland, focus on seven insect species suitable for human consumption as well as industrialized mass production:
Some insects (e.g. crickets, mealworms) are a source of complete protein and provide similar essential amino acid levels as , though less than casein. They have dietary fiber, essential minerals, vitamins such as B12, riboflavin and vitamin A, and include mostly unsaturated fat.
Here's Why You Should Start Eating (More) BugsFAO: Edible insects: future prospects for food and feed security. Online: PDF .
contain between 8 and 20 milligrams of iron for every 100 grams of raw locust, whereas beef contains roughly 6 milligrams of iron in the same amount of meat. Crickets are also very efficient in terms of nutrients. For every 100 grams of substance crickets contain 12.9 grams of protein, 121 calories, and 5.5 grams of fat. Beef contains more protein, containing 23.5 grams in 100 grams of substance, but also has roughly triple the calories and four times the amount of fat as crickets do in 100 grams.
| 559 kcal / 2341 kJ |
| 38,1 g 13,1 g |
| 1,1 g 0 g |
| 48,2 g |
| 0,43 g |
The table below provides common flavor descriptors for a selection of edible insects. Flavors will vary with preparation method (e.g. raw, dried, fried, etc.). Insect development stage is provided when possible.
| +Flavor descriptors of a selection of edible insects !Insect !Scientific name !Development stage !Flavor | |||
| Agave worm (white) | Aegiale hesperiaris | Larvae | Cracklings |
| Agave worm (red) | Comadia redtenbacheri | Larvae | Spicy |
| Family Formicidae | Adult | Sweet, nutty | |
| Carpenter ant | Camponotus spp. | Adult | Charred lemon |
| Formica | Formica spp. | Adult | Kaffir lime |
| Black witch moth | Ascalapha odorata | Larvae | Herring |
| Cockroach | Order Blattodea | - | Mushroom |
| Cricket | Superfamily Grylloidea | Adult | Fish |
| Helicoverpa zea | Helicoverpa zea | Larvae | Sweet corn |
| Dragonfly | Infraorder Anisoptera | Larvae | Fish |
| Grasshopper | Suborder Caelifera | Adult | Fish |
| Honey bee | Apis spp. | Brood | Butter, milk, herbal, vegetal, meaty, mushroom |
| Mealworm | Tenebrio molitor | - | Nutty (larvae); whole wheat bread (adult) |
| Mealybug | Family Pseudococcidae | - | Fried potato |
| Pentatomidae | Family Pentatomidae | Adult | Apple |
| Termite | Infraorder Isoptera | Adult | Nutty |
| Treehopper | Family Membracidae | - | Avocado, zucchini |
| Wasp | Suborder Apocrita | - | Pine nut |
| Corixidae | Family Corixidae | - | Caviar (egg); fish, shrimp (adult) |
Conditions such as temperature, humidity, feed, water sources, and housing, vary depending on the insect species. The insects are raised from eggs to larvae status (mealworms, lesser mealworms) or to their mature form (crickets, locusts) in industrialized insect farms and then killed via temperature control. The Atlantic (2015-09-24): "The companies farming crickets for human consumption". Forbes (2018-01-39): "Farming The Next Big Food Source: Crickets". Culled insects may be freeze-dried and packed whole, or pulverized to insect powder (insect flour) to be used in other food products such as baked goods or snacks.
In addition to nutritional composition and digestibility, insect species are selected for ease of rearing by the producer based on factors such as disease susceptibility, feed conversion efficiency, rate of development, and generational turnover.
Food and drink companies such as the Australian brewery Bentspoke Brewing Co, Canadian Crickstart Food, and the South African startup Gourmet Grubb have introduced insect-based beer, protein bars, a milk alternative, and insect ice cream.
While these products are more and more available, recent research suggests that insect-based foods are unlikely to significantly replace traditional meat. Only a small minority of consumers would consider replacing meat with insects, which are generally viewed as a complement rather than a substitute. In the US and Europe, where insects are not traditionally eaten, cultural barriers limit adoption, making plant-based alternatives a far more promising solution.
In August 2018, EFSA published a first risk profile for the house cricket as food.European Food Safety Authority (28 August 2018): Novel foods: a risk profile for the house cricket (Acheta domesticus). According to a risk assessment published by EFSA on 13 January 2021, the yellow mealworm is safe for human consumption.European Food Safety Authority (13 January 2021): Safety of dried yellow mealworm (Tenebrio molitor larva) as a novel food pursuant to Regulation (EU) 2015/2283. In: EFSA Journal. On 2 July 2021, EFSA published another scientific opinion stating that migratory locust in frozen, dried or ground state is safe for human consumption.EFSA (2 July 2021): Safety of frozen and dried formulations from migratory locust (Locusta migratoria) as a Novel food pursuant to Regulation (EU) 2015/2283.
Following EFSA's assessment, the European Commission has authorized the following edible insects as novel food in the EU:
Within the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act of 1938 (FD&C Act), the FDA states that "The term 'food' means (1) articles used for food or drink for man or other animals, (2) chewing gum, and (3) articles used for components of any such article." Thus, with insects falling under said category, they must be safe and may not bear any added poisonous or added deleterious substance that is unsafe. Said items may not be prepared, packed, or held under insanitary conditions, and must be produced in accordance with current Good Manufacturing Practice (GMP), regulations for manufacturing/processing, packing, or holding human food. The FD&C Act also includes requirements that pertain to the labeling of food and preventive controls, as applicable. Manufacturers have a responsibility to ensure that the food they produce for the United States market is safe and complies with the FD&C Act and FDA's implementing regulations.
In Canada, insects are subject to the same standards and guidelines as other foods sold in stores or online.
The approval of the insects for consumption will be subject to food safety requirements, including treatment processes to kill pathogens and ensuring that they are packed and stored safely to prevent contamination.
Chitin, a component of insect exoskeletons and other body parts, induces cytokine production in the digestive systems of humans and other mammals. Enzymes break the chitin down into smaller fragments, which trigger an immune response that results in inflammatory and allergic reactions. The human immune response to chitin is thought to be related to the abundance of dust mites as a cause of airway inflammatory disease and parasites as a cause of numerous diseases.
In general, insects harvested from the wild pose a greater risk than farmed insects, and insects consumed raw pose a greater risk than insects that are cooked before consumption. Feed substrate and growing conditions are the main factors influencing the microbiological and chemical hazards of farmed insects.
The table below combined the data from two studies published in Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety and summarized the potential hazards of the top five insect species consumed by humans.
As a further guarantee for consumers, quality labeling has been introduced by the Entotrust programme, an independent and voluntary product certification of insect-based foods, which allows producers to communicate the safety and sustainability of their activities.Lessard BD, Ponce-Reyes R (April 2021). "Edible insects. A roadmap for the strategic growth of an emerging industry"(PDF). [22] CSIRO (Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation). Australia's National Science Agency.: 35.
/ref> On 17 August 2021, EFSA published a safety assessment with view to house crickets ( Acheta domesticus) stating that frozen and dried formulations from whole house crickets are safe for consumption.EFSA (17 August 2021): Safety of frozen and dried formulations from whole house crickets (Acheta domesticus) as a Novel food pursuant to Regulation (EU) 2015/2283. In: EFSA Journal 2021;19(8):6779. On 4 July 2022, EFSA published an opinion confirming the safety of frozen and freeze-dried formulations of the lesser mealworm ( Alphitobius diaperinus in larval state) for human consumption.EFSA (4 July 2022): Safety of frozen and freeze-dried formulations of the lesser mealworm (Alphitobius diaperinus larva) as a Novel food pursuant to Regulation (EU) 2015/2283
/ref>
Switzerland
On 1 May 2017, Switzerland approved the following insect species as food:Bundesamt für Lebensmittelsicherheit und Veterinärwesen (2017-04-28): "Insects as food" (German only)
Under certain conditions, these may be offered to consumers whole, pulverized, or processed in food products.
UK
After the Brexit transition period, the regulation regarding edible insects changed in the United Kingdom on 21 January 2021, making them non-marketable without authorization. Insect food products that had been on the market had to be recalled. Insect food products have to be authorized by the Food Standards Agency (FSA) in a novel food authorization process.Food Manufacture (4 November 2021): Edible insects left in legal limbo .Vice World News (28 October 2021): Edible Insects That Could Help Stop Climate Change Are Banned From Major Climate Summit. In February 2022, UK insect industry association Woven Network CIC submitted a first dossier for the authorization of ( Acheta domesticus) as novel food to the FSA.Food Navigator/Oliver Morrison (2 February 2022): "A major milestone for the UK edible insect sector": UK edible insect makers hope for Novel Food approval by 2023.
United States and Canada
In the United States and Canada, insects for human consumption are not classified as novel food and the import and sale is permitted. In the United States, insect food products must comply with Food and Drug Administration (FDA) standards and food labeling regulations (including allergy risk labelling).Mariod, Abdalbasit Adam (2020): The Legislative Status of Edible Insects in the World
/ref>
Singapore
Singapore Food Agency (SFA) has approved 16 species of insects, such as crickets, silkworms and grasshoppers, for human consumption in the second half of 2023.
Discussed health risks
Like other foods, the consumption of edible insects could present health risks stemming from biological, toxicological, and allergenic hazards. Biological hazards include bacteria, viruses, protozoa, fungi and ; toxological risks are poisons, pesticides, heavy metals and ; allergenic hazards relate to arginine kinase, tropomyosin and α-Amylase.
Additionally, recent studies have indicated that proteins from yellow mealworm ( Tenebrio molitor) may act as allergens, potentially triggering immunoglobulin E (IgE)-mediated allergic reactions and cross-reactivity, especially in individuals already sensitized to crustaceans or other arthropods.
The hazards identified in the above table can be controlled in various ways. Allergens can be labelled on the package to avoid consumption by allergy-susceptible consumers. Selective farming can be used to minimize chemical hazards, whereas microbial and parasitical hazards can be controlled by cooking processes.
Coleoptera Beetle Chemical Hormones Cyanogenic substances Heavy metal contamination Lepidoptera Silkworm Allergic Chemical Thiaminase Honeycomb moth Microbial High bacterial count Chemical Cyanogen substances Hymenoptera Ant Chemical Antinutrient factors (tannin, phytate) Orthoptera House cricket Microbial High bacterial count Hemiptera Parasitical Chagas disease Fly Black soldier fly Parasitical Myiasis
Environmental benefits
Insects require significantly less feed, can be used in feed, and release fewer CO2 emissions than conventional animal food sources. They can be used to address the issue of depleted agricultural lands as they do not need much space to be reared as compared to livestock. Insects may be a sustainable commercial farming option to support populations struggling with food security due to their nutrition and farming capacities, taking less room to cultivate than other protein sources. Additionally, since insects can eat food waste, and they require less feed, they are a good option to address food waste. However, insect consumption remains less sustainable overall than plant-based food, and insects are often used as feed for aquaculture and livestock rather than for direct human consumption.
Challenges
There are challenges associated with the production, processing, and consumption of insects as food.
Production
Mass production in the insect industry is a concern due to a lack of technology and funds to efficiently harvest and produce insects. The machinery would have to house proper enclosure for each life cycle of the insect as well as the temperature control as that is key for insect development.Rumpold, B.A., & Schlüter O.K. (2013) Potential and challenges of insects as an innovative source for food and feed production. Innov Food Sci Emerg Technol 17, 1–11.
Processing
The availability of wild-harvested insects can be seasonally dependent. This presents a challenge, as many wild-harvested insects have a short shelf life, sometimes of only a day or two. Identifying methods of processing and storing that extend the shelf life of seasonal insects will improve the efficiency of their harvest and consumption.
Aversion
The concept of eating insects is generally taboo in Western cultures. Although recent studies show some emerging interest, public polling in the US and Europe indicates that only about 20% would consider eating insects, compared to 91% of respondents willing to try plant-based "alternative meats",. In recent years however, a certain level of interest was observed according to related consumer studies.
Insect welfare
There are concerns that insect farming may involve large-scale suffering. Although the ability of insects to suffer is debated, the number of animals involved is particularly large. As of 2023, there are no widely adopted welfare standards in the industry.
Awareness
World Edible Insect Day, held on 23 October, was introduced by Belgian entrepreneur Chris Derudder in 2015 to raise awareness globally for the consumption of edible insects, with a focus on Europe, North America, and Australia.Edible Bug Farm (2015-10-03): Interview with Chris Derudder on WEID.
See also
Footnotes
External links
Further reading
(2025). 9783031239618, Springer. ISBN 9783031239618
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