Hindu texts or Hindu scriptures are manuscripts and voluminous historical literature which are related to any of the diverse traditions within Hinduism. Some of the major Hindus texts include the Vedas, the Upanishads, and the Itihasa. Scholars hesitate in defining the term "Hindu scriptures" given the diverse nature of Hinduism,[Dominic Goodall (1996), Hindu Scriptures, University of California Press, , p. ix–xliii][ but many list the Agamas as Hindu scriptures,][Klaus Klostermaier (2007), A Survey of Hinduism: Third Edition, State University of New York Press, , pp. 46–52, 76–77][RC Zaehner (1992), Hindu Scriptures, Penguin Random House, , pages 1–11 and Preface] and Dominic Goodall includes Bhagavata Purana and Yajnavalkya Smriti in the list of Hindu scriptures as well.[
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History
There are two historic classifications of Hindu texts: Shruti (Sanskrit: श्रुति, ) – that which is heard,[ and Smriti (Sanskrit: स्मृति, IAST: Smṛti) – that which is remembered.][ The Shruti texts refer to the body of most authoritative and ancient , believed to be eternal knowledge authored neither by human nor divine agent but transmitted by sages ( rishis). These comprise the central canon of Hinduism.][James Lochtefeld (2002), "Shruti", The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 2: N–Z, Rosen Publishing. , page 645][Wendy Doniger O'Flaherty (1988), Textual Sources for the Study of Hinduism, Manchester University Press, , pp. 2–3] Of the Shrutis, the Upanishads alone are widely influential among Hindus, considered scriptures par excellence of Hinduism, and their central ideas have continued to influence its thoughts and traditions.[Wendy Doniger (1990), Textual Sources for the Study of Hinduism, 1st Edition, University of Chicago Press, , pp. 2–3; Quote: "The Upanishads supply the basis of later Hindu philosophy; they alone of the Vedic corpus are widely known and quoted by most well-educated Hindus, and their central ideas have also become a part of the spiritual arsenal of rank-and-file Hindus."]
The Smriti texts are a specific body of Hinduism texts attributed to an author,[James Lochtefeld (2002), "Smrti", The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 2: N–Z, Rosen Publishing, , pp. 656–657] The Smriti literature is a vast corpus of diverse texts, and includes but is not limited to Vedanga, the Hindu epics (such as the Mahabharat and Ramayan), the Dharmasutras, the texts of Hindu philosophy, the Puranas, the Kāvya or poetical literature, the Bhasyas, and numerous Nibandhas (digests) covering politics, ethics, culture, arts and society.[Purushottama Bilimoria (2011), The idea of Hindu law, Journal of Oriental Society of Australia, Vol. 43, pp. 103–130][Roy Perrett (1998), Hindu Ethics: A Philosophical Study, University of Hawaii Press, , pp. 16–18]
Many ancient Hindu texts were composed in Sanskrit and other regional Indian languages. In modern times, most ancient texts have been translated into other Indian languages and some in non-Indian languages.[ Prior to the start of the common era, the Hindu texts were composed orally, then memorized and transmitted orally, from one generation to the next, for more than a millennium before they were written down into manuscripts.][Michael Witzel, "Vedas and Upaniṣads", in: Flood, Gavin, ed. (2003), The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism, Blackwell Publishing Ltd., , pp. 68–71][ This verbal tradition of preserving and transmitting Hindu texts, from one generation to next, continued into the modern era.][William Graham (1993), Beyond the Written Word: Oral Aspects of Scripture in the History of Religion, Cambridge University Press, , pp. 67–77]
Shruti
The Shruti texts, defined as "that which is heard", are texts that are believed to be divine revelations of God and were heard by ancient rishis thousands of years ago. Thus, an author is not attributed to these texts.[Roger R. Keller, "Hinduism," Light and Truth: A Latter-day Saint Guide to World Religions (Provo, UT: Religious Studies Center; Salt Lake City: Deseret Book, 2012), 16–39.] The origin language of these texts is Sanskrit.
Vedas
The four Vedas (Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda, and Atharvaveda) are a large body of Hindu texts originating from the Vedic period in northern India, the Rig Veda being composed , and its Samhita and complete before about 800 BCE.[see e.g. ; Sanskrit literature (2003) in Philip's Encyclopedia. Accessed 2007-08-09][see e.g. ; Witzel, Michael, "Vedas and ", in: ; ; Sanskrit literature (2003) in Philip's Encyclopedia. Accessed 2007-08-09][Sanujit Ghose (2011). " Religious Developments in Ancient India" in Ancient History Encyclopedia.] Hindus consider the Vedas to be timeless revelation,[Vaman Shivaram Apte, The Practical Sanskrit-English Dictionary, see apauruSeya] and "impersonal, authorless".[D Sharma, Classical Indian Philosophy: A Reader, Columbia University Press, pp. 196–197][Jan Westerhoff (2009), Nagarjuna's Madhyamaka: A Philosophical Introduction, Oxford University Press, , page 290][Warren Lee Todd (2013), The Ethics of Śaṅkara and Śāntideva: A Selfless Response to an Illusory World, , p. 128] The knowledge in the Vedas is believed in Hinduism to be eternal, uncreated, neither authored by human nor by divine source, but seen, heard and transmitted by sages.
Vedas are also called shruti ("what is heard") literature,[ Seer of the Fifth Veda: Kr̥ṣṇa Dvaipāyana Vyāsa in the Mahābhārata Bruce M. Sullivan, Motilal Banarsidass, pp. 85–86]
Each of the four Vedas[Bloomfield, M. The Atharvaveda and the Gopatha-Brahmana, (Grundriss der Indo-Arischen Philologie und Altertumskunde II.1.b.) Strassburg 1899; Gonda, J. A history of Indian literature: I.1 Vedic literature (Samhitas and Brahmanas); I.2 The Ritual Sutras. Wiesbaden 1975, 1977] have been subclassified into four major text types:
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the (mantras and benedictions),
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the Aranyakas (text on rituals, ceremonies, sacrifices and symbolic-sacrifices),
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the Brahmanas (commentaries on rituals, ceremonies and sacrifices), and
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the Upanishads (text discussing meditation, philosophy and spiritual knowledge).
[Gavin Flood (1996), An Introduction to Hinduism, Cambridge University Press, , pages 35–39][A Bhattacharya (2006), Hindu Dharma: Introduction to Scriptures and Theology, , pp. 8–14; George M. Williams (2003), Handbook of Hindu Mythology, Oxford University Press, , page 285][Jan Gonda (1975), Vedic Literature: (Saṃhitās and Brāhmaṇas), Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ]
Upanishads
The Upanishads are a collection of Hindu texts which contain the central philosophical concepts of Hinduism. The Upanishads are the foundation of Hindu philosophical thought and its diverse traditions.[Wiman Dissanayake (1993), Self as Body in Asian Theory and Practice (Editors: Thomas P. Kasulis et al.), State University of New York Press, , p. 39; Quote: "The Upanishads form the foundations of Hindu philosophical thought and the central theme of the Upanishads is the identity of Atman and Brahman, or the inner self and the cosmic self.";]
Michael McDowell and Nathan Brown (2009), World Religions, Penguin, , pp. 208–210
The Upanishads are commonly referred to as Vedānta, interpreted to mean either the "last chapters, parts of the Vedas" or "the object, the highest purpose of the Veda".[Max Muller, The Upanishads, Part 1, Oxford University Press, page LXXXVI footnote 1] The concepts of Brahman (Ultimate Reality) and Ātman (Soul, Self) are central ideas in all the ,[ and "Know your Ātman" their thematic focus.][PT Raju (1985), Structural Depths of Indian Thought, State University of New York Press, , pp. 35–36] The central ideas of the Upanishads have had a lasting influence on Hindu philosophy.[
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More than 200 Upanishads are known, of which ten are the oldest and most important and are referred to as the mukhya (main) or principal Upanishads.[Stephen Phillips (2009), Yoga, Karma, and Rebirth: A Brief History and Philosophy, Columbia University Press, , Chapter 1][E Easwaran (2007), The Upanishads, , pp. 298–299] The ten mukhya Upanishads are: Isha Upanishad, Kena Upanishad, Katha Upanishad, Prashna, Mundaka, Mandukya, Taittiriya, Aitareya, Chandogya, and Brihadaranyaka.
Smriti
Smriti is the classification of literature which includes various scriptures and Itihasas (epics like the Ramayana and Mahabharata), Harivamsa Puranas, Agamas and . This genre of texts includes the Sutras and Shastras of the six schools of Hindu philosophy: Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Mimamsa and Vedanta.[Andrew Nicholson (2013), Unifying Hinduism: Philosophy and Identity in Indian Intellectual History, Columbia University Press, , pp. 2–5][Karl Potter (1991), Presuppositions of India's Philosophies, Motilal Banarsidass, ]
The Sutras and Shastras texts were compilations of technical or specialized knowledge in a defined area. The earliest are dated to the latter half of the 1st millennium BCE. The Dharmashastra (law books), derivatives of the Dharmasutras. Other examples were bhautikashastra "physics", "chemistry", jīvashastra "biology", Vastu shastra "architectural science", Shilpa Shastras "science of sculpture", arthashastra "economics" and nītishastra "political science".[Jan Gonda (1970 through 1987), A History of Indian Literature, Volumes 1 to 7, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ] It also includes and Agama literature.[Teun Goudriaan and Sanjukta Gupta (1981), Hindu Tantric and Śākta Literature, A History of Indian Literature, Volume 2, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, , pp. 7–14]
Puranas
The Puranas, which mean "history" or "old", are Sanskrit texts which were composed between 3rd century BCE and 1000 CE.[Greg Bailey (2001), Encyclopedia of Asian Philosophy (Editor: Oliver Leaman), Routledge, , pp. 437–439] Composed primarily in Sanskrit, but also in regional languages,[John Cort (1993), Purana Perennis: Reciprocity and Transformation in Hindu and Jaina Texts (Editor: Wendy Doniger), State University of New York Press, , pp. 185–204][Gregory Bailey (2003), The Study of Hinduism (Editor: Arvind Sharma), The University of South Carolina Press, , pp. 139] several of these texts are named after major Hindu deities such as Vishnu, Shiva, and Mahadevi.[Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, , pp. 1–5, 12–21]
The Puranic literature is encyclopedic,[Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of Literature (1995 Edition), Article on Puranas, , page 915] and it includes diverse topics such as cosmogony, cosmology, genealogies of gods, goddesses, kings, heroes, sages, and demigods, folk tales, pilgrimages, temples, medicine, astronomy, grammar, mineralogy, humor, love stories, as well as theology and philosophy.[ The content is diverse across the Puranas, and each Purana has survived in numerous manuscripts which are themselves voluminous and comprehensive. The Hindu Puranas are anonymous texts and likely the work of many authors over the centuries; in contrast, most Jaina Puranas can be dated and their authors assigned.][
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There are 18 Maha Puranas (Great Puranas): Agni Purana, Bhagavata Purana, Bhavishya Purana, Brahmanda Purana, Brahmavaivarta Purana, Garuda Purana, Kurma Purana, Linga Purana, Markandeya Purana, Naradiya Purana, Padma Purana, Shiva Purana, Skanda Purana, Vamana Purana, Varaha Purana, Vayu Purana, and Vishnu Purana[Cornelia Dimmitt (2015), Classical Hindu Mythology: A Reader in the Sanskrit Puranas, Temple University Press, , pp. xii, 4] with over 400,000 verses.[Greg Bailey (2001), Encyclopedia of Asian Philosophy (Editor: Oliver Leaman), Routledge, , p. 503] These Hindu texts have been influential in the Hindu culture, inspiring major national and regional annual festivals of Hinduism.[Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, , pp. 12–13, 134–156, 203–210] The Bhagavata Purana has been among the most celebrated and popular text in the Puranic genre.[Dominic Goodall (1996), Hindu Scriptures, University of California Press, , page xli]
Mahabharata
The Mahābhārata, which translates to " The Great Indian Tale", was probably compiled between the 3rd century BCE and the 3rd century CE, with the oldest preserved parts not much older than around 400 BCE.[Brockington (1998, p. 26)] The text probably reached its final form by the early Gupta Empire ().[Van Buitenen; The Mahabharata – 1; The Book of the Beginning. Introduction (Authorship and Date)] The composition is traditionally attributed to Vedavyasa and is made up of over 100,000 .
The plot of the Mahabharata covers the events of the war between two groups of cousins (the and the ) and the aftermath of the Kurukshetra War.
The Bhagavad Gita is made up of 700 shlokas and is the discussion between Krishna and Arjuna on the battlefield before the start of the war. Krishna in the Bhagavad Gita teaches Arjuna about atma (soul), God, moksha, and dharma.
Ramayana
The Ramayana, an ancient Sanskrit text with the earliest part believed to have been composed in the 5th century BCE, is attributed to the sage Valmiki and contains over 24,000 verses.
The epic covers the life journey of Rama, an incarnation of Vishnu, along with his wife Sita, and brother Lakshmana. Central to the plot is the fourteen-year exile endured by Rama, Sita, and Lakshmana, during which Sita is abducted by Ravana of Lanka. Rama, accompanied by Lakshmana, Hanuman (a devotee of Rama), and an army, engages in a battle with Ravana, ultimately emerging victorious with Rama's slaying of Ravana. The epic concludes with Rama, Sita, and Lakshmana's return to Ayodhya, where Rama is crowned king and reigns over Ayodhya.
Other Hindu texts
Hindu texts for specific fields, in Sanskrit and other regional languages, have been reviewed as follows:
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[Gyula Wojtilla (2006), History of Kr̥ṣiśāstra, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ] |
[PK Acharya (1946), An Encyclopedia of Hindu Architecture, Oxford University Press, Also see Volumes 1 to 6][Bruno Dagens (1995), MAYAMATA : An Indian Treatise on Housing Architecture and Iconography, ] |
[Karen Pechelis (2014), The Embodiment of Bhakti, Oxford University Press, ] |
[ The Sanskrit Drama, Oxford University Press][Rachel Baumer and James Brandon (1993), Sanskrit Drama in Performance, Motilal Banarsidass, ][Mohan Khokar (1981), Traditions of Indian Classical Dance, Peter Owen Publishers, ] |
[Hartmut Scharfe (2002), Education in Ancient India, BRILL, ] |
[John Brockington (1998), The Sanskrit Epics, BRILL, ] |
[Ludwik Sternbach (1974), Subhāṣita: Gnomic and Didactic Literature, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ] |
[Hartmut Scharfe, A history of Indian literature. Vol. 5, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ] |
[J Duncan M Derrett (1978), Dharmasastra and Juridical Literature: A history of Indian literature (Editor: Jan Gonda), Vol. 4, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ] |
[Claus Vogel, A history of Indian literature. Vol. 5, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ] |
[Kim Plofker (2009), Mathematics in India, Princeton University Press, ][David Pingree, A Census of the Exact Sciences in Sanskrit, Volumes 1 to 5, American Philosophical Society, ] |
[MS Valiathan, The Legacy of Caraka, Orient Blackswan, ][Kenneth Zysk, Medicine in the Veda, Motilal Banarsidass, ] |
[Emmie te Nijenhuis, Musicological literature (A History of Indian literature; v. 6 : Scientific and technical literature; Fasc. 1), Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ][Lewis Rowell, Music and Musical Thought in Early India, University of Chicago Press, ] |
[Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ] |
[Karl Potter, The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, Volumes 1 through 27, Motilal Banarsidass, ] |
[Edwin Gerow, A history of Indian literature. Vol. 5, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ] |
[JJ Meyer, Sexual Life in Ancient India, Vol 1 and 2, Oxford University Press, ] |
[Patrick Olivelle, King, Governance, and Law in Ancient India, Oxford University Press, ] |
[Teun Goudriaan, Hindu Tantric and Śākta Literature, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ] |
[Stella Kramrisch, Hindu Temple, Vol. 1 and 2, Motilal Banarsidass, ] |
[Jan Gonda (1975), Vedic literature (Saṃhitās and Brāhmaṇas), Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ] |
Historical significance
The Hindu scriptures provide the early documented history of arts and science forms in India such as music, dance, sculptures, architecture, Indian astronomy, Vedanga, mathematics, Ayurveda and wellness. Valmiki's Ramayana (500 BCE to 100 BCE) mentions music and singing by , dance by such as Urvashi, Rambha, Menaka, Tilottama Panchāpsaras, and by Ravana's wives who excelling in nrityageeta or "singing and dancing" and nritavaditra or "playing musical instruments").[Ananda W. P. Guruge, 1991, The Society of the Ramayana, Page 180-200.] The evidence of earliest dance related texts are in Natasutras, which are mentioned in the text of Panini, the sage who wrote the classic on Vyakarana, and who is dated to about 500 BCE.
See also
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Hindu cosmology and eschatology
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Hindu tantric literature
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Indian epic poetry
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List of Hindu texts
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List of historic Indian texts
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Prasthanatrayi
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Sanskrit literature
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Sanskrit-related topics
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Timeline of Hindu texts
Notes
Bibliography
Further reading
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R.C. Zaehner (1992), Hindu Scriptures, Penguin Random House,
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Dominic Goodall, Hindu Scriptures, University of California Press,
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Jessica Frazier (2014), The Bloomsbury Companion to Hindu studies, Bloomsbury Academic,
External links
Manuscripts collections (incomplete)
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A handlist of Sanskrit and Prakrit Hindu, Buddhist and Jain Manuscripts held by the Wellcome Library, Volume 1, Compiled by Dominik Wujastyk (Includes subjects such as historic Dictionaries, Drama, Erotics, Ethics, Logic, Poetics, Medicine, Philosophy, etc.)
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A handlist of Sanskrit and Prakrit Hindu, Buddhist and Jain Manuscripts held by the Wellcome Library, Volume 2, Compiled by Dominik Wujastyk (Includes subjects such as historic Dictionaries, Drama, Erotics, Ethics, Logic, Poetics, Medicine, Philosophy, etc.; for complete 6 set collection see )
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Clay Sanskrit Library publishes Sanskrit literature with downloadable materials.
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The Sacred Books of the Hindus Information
Online resources:
