Frankincense, also known as olibanum (),
Etymology
The English word
frankincense derives from the
Old French expression franc encens, meaning 'true
incense', maybe with the sense of 'high quality
incense'.
The adjective in Old French meant 'noble, true', in this case perhaps 'pure'; although
franc is ultimately derived from the tribal name of the
Franks, it is not a direct reference to them in the word
francincense.
The word for frankincense in the Koine Greek of the New Testament, (or ), is cognate with the name of Lebanon (); the same can be said with regard to Arabic, Phoenician, Hebrew,
derived from λίβανος or libanus. The leading "''o''" may have come from , or from the Greek article ''o-'' or Arabic article ''al-''.
Description
The trees start producing
resin at about eight to 10 years old.
Tapping is done two to three times per year with the final taps producing the best tears because of their higher aromatic
terpene,
sesquiterpene and
diterpene content. Generally speaking, the more opaque resins are the best quality. Today 90 percent of the world's production of frankincense comes from the Horn of Africa, predominantly from the border communities on the
Somalia–
Ethiopia border.
The main species in trade are:
-
Boswellia frereana grows in northern Somalia.
-
Boswellia occulta:
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Boswellia sacra: Somalia, South Arabia.
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Boswellia bhaw-dajiana (older spelling Boswellia bhau-dajiana) It is a synonym of Boswellia sacra
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Boswellia carteri (older spelling Boswellia carterii): It was long considered an independent species,
[ ] but in the 1980s it was determined to be a synonym of Boswellia sacra.
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Boswellia serrata (synonym Boswellia thurifera): India.
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Boswellia papyrifera: Ethiopia, Eritrea, Sudan.
Recent studies indicate that frankincense tree populations are declining, partly from overexploitation.
Chemical composition
These are some of the chemical compounds present in frankincense:
Among various plants in the genus Boswellia, only Boswellia sacra, Boswellia serrata and Boswellia papyrifera have been confirmed to contain significant amounts of boswellic acids.
History
Frankincense has been traded on the
Somali Peninsula and
Arabian Peninsula for more than 5,000 years.
[Ulric Killion, A Modern Chinese Journey to the West: Economic Globalis]ation And Dualism, (Nova Science Publishers: 2006), p.66] Greeks historian
Herodotus wrote in
The History that frankincense was harvested from trees in southern Arabia. He reported that the gum was dangerous to harvest because of winged snakes
[ὄφιες ὑπόπτεροι] that guard the trees and that the smoke from burning
Storax balsam would drive the snakes away.
Pliny the Elder also mentioned frankincense in his
Naturalis Historia.
Frankincense, which was used in the Roman Empire prior to the spread of Christianity, was reintroduced to Western Europe possibly by Frankish Crusades
Southern Arabia was an exporter of frankincense in antiquity, with some of it being traded as far as China. The 13th-century Chinese writer and customs inspector Zhao Rukuo wrote that or (Chinese language: 乳香 / 薰陸香 ) comes from the three Dashi states (Chinese: 大食 – Caliphate (Arab Muslims)) of Maloba (Murbat), Shihe (Shihr), and Nufa (Dhofar), from the depths of the remotest mountains;
In Christian tradition, frankincense is one of the gifts given by the Biblical Magi to Jesus at his nativity as described in the Gospel of Matthew.
Production
Thousands of tons of frankincense are traded every year to be used in religious ceremonies as incense in
and by makers of perfumes, natural medicines, and
.
Somalia
In Somalia, frankincense is harvested in the Bari and
Sanaag regions: mountains lying at the northwest of
Erigavo; El Afweyn District;
Cal Madow mountain range, a westerly escarpment that runs parallel to the coast; Cal Miskeed, including
Hantaara and Habeeno plateau and a middle segment of the frankincense-growing escarpment;
Karkaar mountains or eastern escarpment, which lies at the eastern fringe of the frankinscence escarpment.
Oman
In
Dhofar,
Oman, frankincense species grow north of
Salalah.
It was traded in the ancient coastal city of Sumhuram, now
Khor Rori,
and
Al-Baleed, an ancient port.
In 2000,
UNESCO inscribed the sites as a World Heritage Site
Land of Frankincense.
Ecological status
In 1998, the International Union for Conservation of Nature warned that one of the primary frankincense species,
Boswellia sacra, is "near threatened". Frankincense trees are not covered by the
CITES, but experts argue that
Boswellia species meet the criteria for protection. In a 2006 study, an ecologist at Wageningen University & Research claimed that, by the late-1990s,
Boswellia papyrifera trees in Eritrea were becoming hard to find. In 2019, a new paper predicted a 50% reduction in
Boswellia papyrifera within the next two decades. This species, found mainly in Ethiopia, Eritrea, and Sudan, accounts for about two-thirds of global frankincense production. The paper warns that all
Boswellia species are threatened by habitat loss and overexploitation. Most
Boswellia grow in harsh, arid regions beset by poverty and conflict. Harvesting and selling the tree's resin is one of the few sources of income for the inhabitants, resulting in overtapping.
Research
Limited clinical studies have provided weak evidence for the use of frankincense resin in certain disease conditions, but the inconsistent, low quality of research remains inconclusive for determining any effect.
Uses
The Egyptians cleansed body cavities in the
Mummy process with frankincense and
natron. In Persian medicine, it is used for diabetes, gastritis, and stomach ulcers.
The oil is used in Abrahamic religions to cleanse a house or building of bad or evil energy—including used in exorcisms and to bless one's being (like the
bakhoor commonly found in
Persian Gulf cultures by spreading the fumes towards the body).
The incense offering occupied a prominent position in the sacrificial legislation of the ancient Hebrews.[ The Jewish Encyclopedia, vol. VI, Funk and Wagnalls Company: New York 1904, p. 568] The Book of Exodus (30:34–38) prescribes frankincense, blended with equal amounts of three aromatic spices, to be ground and burnt in the sacred altar before the Ark of the Covenant in the wilderness Tabernacle, where it was meant to be a holy offering—not to be enjoyed for its fragrance. Scholars have identified frankincense as what the Book of Jeremiah (6:20) relates was imported from Sheba during the 6th century BC Babylonian captivity.
In traditional Chinese medicine, frankincense (乳香 ) along with myrrh (沒藥 ) are considered to have anti-bacterial properties and blood-moving uses.
Essential oil
The
essential oil of frankincense is produced by steam distillation of the tree resin. The oil's chemical components are 75%
,
, and
. Contrary to some commercial claims, steam distilled frankincense oils do not contain the insufficiently volatile boswellic acids (triterpenoids), although they may be present in solvent extractions. The chemistry of the essential oil is mainly monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes, such as alpha-pinene, Limonene, alpha-Thujene, and beta-Pinene with small amounts of
terpenoid components being the upper limit in terms of molecular weight.
Essential oils can be diluted and applied to skin or the fragrance can be inhaled.
See also
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Trade
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Land of Frankincense (Frankincense Trail), site in Oman
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Incense trade route, a large network around the Mediterranean and beyond
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Nabataeans, a trader tribe
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Literature
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Desi Sangye Gyatso, author of a Tibetan herbal
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Historia Plantarum (Theophrastus book)
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Similar plants and products
Further reading
External links
