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Fire arrows were one of the earliest forms of weaponized gunpowder, being used from the 9th century onward. Not to be confused with earlier incendiary arrow projectiles, the fire arrow was a gunpowder weapon which receives its name from the translated Chinese term huǒjiàn (火箭), which literally means fire arrow. In China, a 'fire arrow' referred to a gunpowder projectile consisting of a bag of incendiary gunpowder attached to the shaft of an arrow. Fire arrows are the predecessors of , the first firearm.
Later rockets utilizing gunpowder were used to provide arrows with propulsive force and the term fire arrow became synonymous with rockets in the Chinese language. In other languages such as Sanskrit, 'fire arrow' ( agni astra) underwent a different semantic shift and became synonymous with 'cannon'.
According to the Wujing Zongyao the fire arrow was constructed and used in the following manner:
Incendiary gunpowder weapons had an advantage over previous incendiaries by using their own built-in oxygen supply to create flames, and were therefore harder to put out, similar to Greek fire. However, unlike Greek fire, gunpowder's physical properties are solid rather than liquid, which makes it easier to store and load.
The rocket propelled fire arrow appeared later. By the mid-14th century, rocket arrow launchers had appeared in the Ming dynasty and later on mobile rocket arrow launchers that were utilized in China and later spread to Korea. The fire arrows propelled by gunpowder may have had a range of up to .
In 969, gunpowder propelled rocket arrows were invented by Yue Yifang and Feng Jisheng.
In 975, the state of Wuyue sent a unit of soldiers skilled in the handling of fire arrows to the Song dynasty. In the same year, the Song used fire arrows to destroy the fleet of Southern Tang.
Published in 1044, the Wujing Zongyao, or Complete Compendium of Military Classics, states that in 994, the city of Zitong was attacked by a Liao dynasty army of 100,000 men who were driven back by regular war machines and fire arrows. This New Ocean: The Story of the First Space Age (Google eBook), William E. Burrows, Random House Digital, Inc., Nov 5, 1999P.8
In 1083, Song records state that the court produced 350,000 fire arrows and sent them to two garrisons.
On March 1, 1126, the Song dynasty general Li Gang used a fire arrow machine known as the Thunderbolt thrower during the Jingkang Incident.（靖康元年二月六日）是夕，宿于咸丰门，以金人进兵门外，治攻具故。先是，蔡楙号令将士，金人近城不得辄施放，有引炮及发床子弩者，皆杖之，将士愤怒。余（李纲）既登城，令施放，有引炮自便，能中（金）贼者，厚赏。夜，发「霹雳炮」以击，（金）贼军皆惊呼。(Rough Translation: On In the evening, I slept at the gate of Xianfeng, as the Jin army arrived at the gate and nourishing their weapons. Earlier, Cai Mao had ordered the men that they were not allowed to fire on the Jin soldiers whoever came near, any firing from trebuchets and ballistas were to be caned, and the soldiers were irritate by the order. Once arrived at the walls, I had ordered them to fire, for those who could hit the enemy were to be extensively rewarded. At night, they launched the "thunderbolt pao" at the enemy, and they were all shocked.) Records of Messages from the Jingkang Era ch. 2 (author: Li Gang)
By 1127, the Jin were also using fire arrows produced by captured Song artisans.
In 1159, fire arrows were used by the Song navy in sinking a Jin fleet.
In 1161, the general Yu Yunwen used fire arrows at the Battle of Caishi, near present-day Ma'anshan, during a Jin maritime incursion.（绍兴辛已年）我舟伏于七宝山后，令曰：「旗举则出江！」。先使一骑偃旗于山之顶，伺其半济，忽山上卓立一旗，舟师自山下河中两旁突出大江，人在舟中，踏车以行船。但见船行如飞，而不见有人，（金）虏以为纸船也。舟中忽发一「霹雳炮」，盖以纸为之，而实之以石灰、硫黄。炮自空而下落水中，硫黄得水而火作，自水跳出，其声如雷，纸裂而石灰散为烟雾，眯其人马之目，人物不相见。(Rough Translation: Year Once our ships had hid behind the Mount Qibao, an order was given to launch out followed after the signal. Earlier, a mounted scout was sent atop the peak to watch over half cross the river, suddenly a signal was shown from the peak, and the ships came out from the river on both sides at the foot, all men on board tread as to move the ship. The ships seemed to move swiftly without sails or oars, so the savages Jin conceived that those were paper boats. Then, the paddle wheelers launched the "thunderbolt pao" at their enemy on a sudden, which were made of paper pots, packed with lime and sulfur. When alight, they exploded upon impact with the water, and bounce out, making a noise like thunder. The pots were cracked and lime scattered into a smoky fog, blinding and terrifying the enemy men and horses.) Collection from the Sincerity Studio ch. 44 (author: Yang Wanli)
By 1206, "gunpowder arrows" ( huoyaojian) rather than just "fire arrows" ( huojian) were mentioned.
In 1245, a military exercise was conducted on the Qiantang River using what were probably rockets.
The Mongols also made use of the fire arrow during their campaigns in Japan. Probably as a result of the Mongolian military campaigns the fire arrows later spread into the Middle East, where they were mentioned by Al Hasan Al Ramma in the late 13th century.
In 1374, the kingdom of Joseon also started producing gunpowder and by 1377, was producing cannons and fire arrows, which they used against wokou pirates. Korean fire arrows were used against the Japanese during the invasion of Korea in 1592.
In 1380, an order of "wasp nest" rocket arrow launchers were ordered by the Ming army and in 1400, rocket arrow launchers were recorded to have been used by Li Jinglong.
In 1451, a type of mobile rocket arrow launcher known as the "Munjong Hwacha" was invented in Joseon.
The Japanese version of the fire arrow was known as the bo hiya. The Japanese pirates (wokou, also known as wako or kaizoku) in the 16th century were reported to have used the bo hiya which had the appearance of a large arrow. A burning element made from incendiary waterproof rope was wrapped around the shaft and when lit the bo hiya was launched from a mortar like weapon or a wide bore Tanegashima matchlock arquebus. During one sea battle it was said the bo hiya were "falling like rain".
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