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, one of the worst disasters in the history of the United States|300x300px]]A disaster is an event that causes such serious harm to people, buildings, economies, or the environment that the affected community cannot handle it alone. The United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction defines a disaster as "a serious disruption of the functioning of a community or a society at any scale due to hazardous events interacting with conditions of exposure, vulnerability and capacity, leading to one or more of the following: human, material, economic and environmental losses and impacts". like , , , and wildfires are caused by natural . Human-made disasters like oil spills, terrorism and are caused by people. It may be difficult to separate natural and human-made disasters because human actions can make natural disasters worse. Climate change also affects how often disasters due to extreme weather hazards happen.
Disasters usually affect people in developing countries more than people in wealthy countries. Over 95% of deaths from disasters happen in low-income countries, and those countries have higher economic losses compared to higher-income countries. For example, the damage from natural disasters is 20 times greater in developing countries than in industrialized countries. This is because low-income countries often do not have well-built buildings or good plans to handle emergencies.
To reduce the damage from disasters, it is important to be prepared and have fit-for-purpose infrastructure. Disaster risk reduction (DRR) aims to make communities stronger and better prepared to handle disasters. It focuses on actions to reduce risk before a disaster occurs, rather than on response and recovery after the event. DRR and climate change adaptation measures are similar in that they aim to reduce vulnerability of people and places to natural hazards.
When a disaster happens, the response includes actions like warning and evacuating people, rescuing those in danger, and quickly providing food, shelter, and medical care. The goal is to save lives and help people recover as quickly as possible. In some cases, national or international help may be needed to support recovery. This can happen, for example, through the work of Aid agency.
Disasters are defined as events that have significant adverse effects on people. When a hazard overwhelms the capacity of a community to respond or causes widespread injury or damage, it is classified as a disaster.Zibulewsky, Joseph (April 14, 2001). "Defining disaster: the emergency department perspective". National Library of Medicine. Retrieved October 21, 2023. The international disaster database EM-DAT defines a disaster as “a situation or event that overwhelms local capacity, necessitating a request for external assistance at the national or international level; it is an unforeseen and often sudden event that causes great damage, destruction, and human suffering.”CRED. 2023 Disasters in Numbers: Climate in Action. (2024). EM-DAT Report.
The effects of a disaster encompass human, material, economic, and environmental losses and effects.
Undro (1984) defined a disaster in a more qualitative fashion asSmith 1996 quoted in "an event, concentrated in time and space, in which a community undergoes severe danger and incurs such losses to its members and physical appurtenances that the social structure is disrupted and the fulfilment of all or some of the essential functions of the society is prevented." Like other definitions, this looks beyond the social aspects of the disaster impacts. It also focuses on losses. This raises the need for emergency response as an aspect of the disaster. (1992). 9780415012171, Routledge. ISBN 9780415012171 It does not set out quantitative thresholds or scales for damage, death, or injury.
A study in 1969 defined major disasters as conforming to the following criteria, based on the amount of deaths or damage: at least 100 people dead, at least 100 people injured, or at least $1 million damage. This definition includes indirect losses of life caused after the initial onset of the disaster. These could be the effects of diseases such as cholera or dysentery arising from the disaster. This definition is still commonly used. However, it is limited to the number of deaths, injuries, and damage in money terms.
Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (2015–2030)
It is usual to divide disasters into natural or human-made. Recently the divide between natural, man-made and man-accelerated disasters has become harder to draw. Some manufactured disasters such as smog and acid rain have been wrongly attributed to nature.
| + Disasters with links to natural hazards | |
| The sudden, drastic flow of snow down a slope, occurring when either natural triggers, such as loading from new snow or rain, or artificial triggers, such as explosives or backcountry skiers. | |
| A severe snowstorm characterized by very strong winds and low temperatures | |
| The shaking of the Earth's crust, caused by underground volcanic forces of breaking and shifting rock beneath the Earth's surface | |
| Fires that originate in uninhabited areas and which pose the risk to spread to inhabited areas (see also Wildfire § Climate change effects) | |
| Flash flooding: Small creeks, gullies, dry streambeds, ravines, culverts or even low-lying areas flood quickly (see also Effects of climate change) | |
| Rain occurring when outside surface temperature is below freezing | |
| A prolonged period of excessively hot weather relative to the usual weather pattern of an area and relative to normal temperatures for the season (see also Effects of climate change § Heat waves and temperature extremes). | |
| Geological phenomenon which includes a range of ground movement, such as rock falls, deep failure of slopes and shallow debris flows | |
| An electrical discharge caused by lightning, typically during thunderstorms | |
| The sudden eruption of carbon dioxide from deep lake water | |
| Tornado | A violently rotating column of air caused by the convergence of an Vertical draft of warm air and a downdraft of cold air |
| Tropical cyclone | Rapidly rotating Storm characterized by a low-pressure center, a closed low-level atmospheric circulation, Beaufort scale, and a spiral arrangement of that produce heavy rain and (see also Tropical cyclones and climate change) |
| A series of waves hitting shores strongly, mainly caused by the displacement of a large volume of a body of water, typically an ocean or a large lake, usually caused by earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, underwater explosions, landslides, glacier calvings, meteorite impacts and other disturbances above or below water | |
| The release of hot magma, volcanic ash and/or gases from a volcano |
Climate change and environmental degradation are sometimes called socio-natural hazards. These are hazards involving a combination of both natural and human factors. All disasters can be regarded as human-made, because of failure to introduce the right emergency management measures.Blaikie, Piers, Terry Cannon, Ian Davis & Ben Wisner. At Risk – Natural hazards, people's vulnerability and disasters, Wiltshire: Routledge, 2003,
may be caused locally by drought, flood, fire or pestilence. In modern times there is plenty of food globally. Long-lasting local shortages are generally due to government mismanagement, violent conflict, or an economic system that does not distribute food where needed.
Some researchers distinguish between recurring events like seasonal flooding and unpredictable one-off events. Recurring events often carry an estimate of how often they occur. Experts call this the return period.
The Emergency Events Database (EM-DAT) records statistics about disasters related to natural hazards. For 2023, EM-DAT recorded 399 disasters, which was higher than the 20-year average of 369.
In the immediate aftermath of a disaster, physical injuries are often the most urgent concern. The severity of damage to local infrastructure may require emergency responders and community health workers to establish temporary triage or treatment sites. Among natural hazards, earthquakes are generally associated with the highest number of injuries, compared to events such as floods, storms, wildfires, or tsunamis.
Chronic disease–related emergencies
Many disasters disrupt electricity, transportation, and healthcare systems, creating serious risks for individuals with chronic illnesses. People who rely on ongoing medical treatment such as those with diabetes, kidney disease, respiratory conditions, or cardiovascular disorders are particularly vulnerable when access to medication, medical equipment, or healthcare facilities is interrupted.
Hygiene and disease transmission
Damage to essential infrastructure, including water supply systems, sanitation networks, and energy services, can lead to secondary public health risks. Contaminated drinking water, nonfunctional sewage systems, and reduced waste management increase the likelihood of infectious disease outbreaks. Prolonged power outages may also compromise food safety, medication storage, and the safe operation of healthcare facilities.
Food insecurity Disasters frequently disrupt food production and distribution systems. While supply chains may be temporarily interrupted, damage to agricultural land, livestock, or food processing facilities can create longer-term food shortages. These disruptions may contribute to rising food prices, disproportionately affecting low-income and vulnerable populations.
Mental health effects
Experiencing a disaster can have significant psychological consequences. In the short term, affected populations may experience shock, fear, and grief. Over time, the loss of housing, livelihoods, and social support networks can contribute to mental health conditions such as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), depression, and anxiety. Long-term impacts may also include increased rates of substance misuse.
Damage to healthcare systems
Disasters can severely impair healthcare infrastructure through physical destruction, power failures, or shortages of medical supplies. Hospitals and clinics may be unable to operate at full capacity, while damage to equipment and medication losses further limit care delivery. Population displacement following disasters can also result in healthcare workforce shortages, and in some cases, reduced incentives or resources for rebuilding health facilities.
According to a UN report, 91% of deaths from hazards from 1970 to 2019 occurred in developing countries. These countries already have higher vulnerability and lower resilience to these events, which exacerbates the effects of the hazards.
Social, cultural, and political perspectives
Scholarly research emphasizes that disaster outcomes are shaped not only by hazardous events but also by social organization, culture, governance, and political economy. In this view, hazard is one component of risk; impacts (mortality, displacement, recovery) are patterned by exposure, vulnerability, and capacity that develop over time through land use, infrastructure, institutions, and everyday practice (2026). 9781317754633, Routledge. ISBN 9781317754633 These perspectives inform contemporary approaches to disaster risk reduction (DRR), which focus on reducing vulnerability and exposure alongside hazard monitoring.
In global health, preparedness has included scenario planning, early-warning and surveillance systems, and the maintenance of material reserves to ensure continuity of response when events exceed normal operating conditions.The literature emphasizes that such systems are never exhaustive: they reflect historically specific judgments about plausibility, proportionality, and acceptable trade-offs between objectives (e.g., civil liberties, economic continuity, and protection of life).
From this perspective, there are no purely “natural” disasters: hazard interacts with socially produced vulnerability and capacity, which are distributed along lines such as class, race, gender, age, disability, and legal status.
Critical work also attends to questions of representation and voice: whose experiences are documented, which forms of knowledge inform planning, and how media or cultural narratives frame causes and consequences.It further examines the politics of aid and recovery eligibility rules, documentation requirements, and the spatial distribution of assistance and how these practices can reproduce or mitigate pre-existing inequalities.
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