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Apologetics (from ) is the religious discipline of defending religious doctrines through systematic and discourse. Early Christian writers (c. 120–220) who defended their beliefs against critics and recommended their to outsiders were called Christian apologists. In 21st-century usage, apologetics is often identified with debates over and .


Etymology
The term apologetics derives from the word (ἀπολογία). In the Classical Greek legal system, the prosecution delivered the (κατηγορία), the accusation or charge, and the defendant replied with an , the defence.Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, κατηγορία and ἀπολογία The was a formal speech or explanation to reply to and rebut the charges. A famous example is ' Apologia defense, as chronicled in Plato's Apology.

In the of the , the employs the term apologia in his trial speech to and when he says "I make my defense" in Acts 26:2. A form appears in Paul's Letter to the Philippians as he is "defending the gospel" in Philippians 1:7, and in "giving an answer" in 1 Peter 3:15.

Although the term apologetics has Western, primarily Christian origins and is most frequently associated with the defense of Christianity, the term is sometimes used referring to the defense of any religion in formal debate involving religion.


Apologetic positions

Baháʼí Faith
Many apologetic books have been written in defence of the history or teachings of the Baháʼí Faith. The religion's founders wrote several books presenting proofs of their religion; among them are the Báb's Seven Proofs and Bahá'u'lláh's Kitáb-i-Íqán. Later Baháʼí authors wrote prominent apologetic texts, such as Mírzá Abu'l-Fadl's The Brilliant Proof and et al.'s Making the Crooked Straight.


Buddhism
One of the earliest Buddhist apologetic texts is , which deals with the Buddhist metaphysics such as and characteristics such as wisdom, perception, volition, feeling, consciousness and the soul. In the Meiji Era (1868-1912), encounters between Buddhists and Christians in Japan as a result of increasing contact between Japan and other nations may have prompted the formation of , including the apologetic Shin Bukkyō (新仏教) magazine. In recent times, A. L. De Silva, an Australian convert to , has written a book, Beyond Belief, providing Buddhist apologetic responses and a critique of Christian Fundamentalist doctrine.
(1994). 9780646212111, Three Gems Publications, ebook link at Buddha Dharma Education Association Incorporated, also. .
Gunapala Dharmasiri wrote an apologetic critique of the Christian concept of God from a perspective.


Christianity
Christian apologetics combines Christian theology, , and in an attempt to present a rational basis for the Christian faith, to defend the faith against objections and misrepresentation, and to show that the Christian doctrine is the only world-view that is faultless and consistent with all fundamental knowledge and questions.

Christian apologetics has taken many forms over the centuries. In the , Christians were severely persecuted, and many charges were brought against them. Examples in the Bible include the Apostle Paul's address to the Athenians in the ( Acts 17: 22-34). J. David CasselJ. David Cassel. "Defending the Cannibals: How Christians responded to the sometimes strange accusations of their critics." gives several examples: wrote that fabricated charges that Christians started the burning of Rome.Tacitus, Annals XV.44 Other charges included cannibalism (due to a literal interpretation of the ) and (due to early Christians' practice of addressing each other as "brother" and "sister"). Paul the Apostle, , , and others often defended Christianity against charges that were brought to justify persecution.

Later apologists have focused on providing reasons to accept various aspects of Christian belief. Christian apologists of many traditions, in common with Jews, Muslims, and some others, argue for the existence of a unique and personal God. is one important aspect of such arguments, and 's arguments have been highly influential in this area. Many prominent Christian apologists are scholarly philosophers or theologians, frequently with additional doctoral work in , , comparative religions, and other fields. Others take a more popular or pastoral approach. Some prominent modern apologists are Douglas Groothuis, Frederick Copleston, , Walter R. Martin, Dinesh D'Souza, Douglas Wilson, Cornelius Van Til, , Francis Schaeffer, , Edward John Carnell, James White, R. C. Sproul, , , , , , G. K. Chesterton, William Lane Craig, J. P. Moreland, Hugh Ross, David Bentley Hart, , , , RC Kunst, , and .

Apologists in the include Bishop Robert Barron, G. K. Chesterton,

(2025). 9781604592467, Wilder Publications.
, Trent Horn, , , Kenneth Hensley, , , and .

John Henry Newman (1801–1890) was an English convert to Roman Catholicism, later made a cardinal, and in 2010. In early life, he was a major figure in the to bring the Church of England back to its Catholic roots. Eventually his studies in history persuaded him to become a Roman Catholic. When John Henry Newman entitled his spiritual autobiography Apologia Pro Vita Sua in 1864, he was playing upon both this connotation, and the more commonly understood meaning of an expression of contrition or regret.

Christian apologists employ a variety of philosophical and formal approaches, including ontological, cosmological, and teleological arguments. The Christian presuppositionalist approach to apologetics uses the transcendental argument for the existence of God.Apologetics: A Justification of Christian Belief. John Frame-Joseph Torres - P&R Publishing - 2015 p. 67f

was an early apologist. He was born, lived, and died in . He is sometimes known as the "Father of the ". He introduced the term () to the Christian vocabulary A History of Christian Thought, , Touchstone Books, 1972. (p. 43) and probably the formula "three Persons, one Substance" as the Latin "tres , " (from the "treis Hypostaseis, "), and the terms Vetus Testamentum () and Novum Testamentum ().


The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
There are Latter-day Saint apologists who focus on the defense of , including early church leaders, such as Parley P. Pratt, John Taylor, B. H. Roberts, and James E. Talmage, and modern figures, such as , Daniel C. Peterson, John L. Sorenson, , Orson Scott Card, and Jeff Lindsay.

Several well known apologetic organizations of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, such as the Foundation for Ancient Research and Mormon Studies (a group of scholars at Brigham Young University) and (an independent, not-for-profit group run by Latter Day Saints), have been formed to defend the doctrines and history of the Latter Day Saint movement in general and the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints in particular.


Deism
is a form of in which God created the universe and established rationally comprehensible moral and natural laws but no longer intervenes in human affairs. Deism is a where belief in God is based on application of reason and evidence observed in the designs and laws found in nature. The World Order of Deists maintains a web site presenting deist apologetics that demonstrate the existence of God based on evidence and reason, absent divine revelation.


Hinduism
Hindu apologetics began developing during the British colonial period. A number of Indian intellectuals had become critical of the British tendency to devalue the Hindu religious tradition. As a result, these Indian intellectuals, as well as a handful of British , were galvanized to examine the roots of the religion as well as to study its vast arcana and corpus in an analytical fashion. This endeavor drove the deciphering and preservation of . Many translations of Hindu texts were produced which made them accessible to a broader reading audience.

In the early 18th century, Christian missionary Bartholomäus Ziegenbalg engaged in dialogues with several -speaking Hindu priests, and recorded arguments of these Hindu apologists. These records include German-language reports submitted to the Lutheran headquarters in Halle, and 99 letters written by the Hindu priests to him (later translated into German under the title Malabarische Korrespondenz from 1718 onwards).

During 1830–1831, missionary John Wilson engaged in debates with Hindu apologists in Bombay. In 1830, his protege Ram Chandra, a Hindu convert to Christianity, debated with several Hindu apologists in public. Hindu Morobhatt Dandekar summarized his arguments from his 1831 debate with Wilson in a Marathi-language work titled Shri-Hindu-dharma-sthapana. Narayana Rao, another Hindu apologist, wrote Svadesha-dharma-abhimani in response to Wilson.

In the mid-19th century, several Hindu apologist works were written in response to John Muir's Mataparīkṣā. These include Mata-parīkṣā-śikṣā (1839) by of Central India, Mataparīkṣottara (1840) by Harachandra Tarkapanchanan of , Śāstra-tattva-vinirṇaya (1844-1845) by of , and a critique (published later in 1861 as part of Dharmādharma-parīkṣā-patra) by an unknown writer.

A range of Indian philosophers, including Swami Vivekananda and , have written rational explanations regarding the values of the Hindu religious tradition. More modern proponents such as the Maharishi Mahesh Yogi have also tried to correlate recent developments from and research with Hindu concepts. The late Reverend Pandurang Shastri Athavale has given a plethora of discourses regarding the symbolism and rational basis for many principles in the . In his book The Cradle of Civilization, David Frawley, an American who has embraced the Vedic tradition, has characterized the ancient texts of the Hindu heritage as being like "pyramids of the spirit".


Islam
'Ilm al-Kalām, literally "science of discourse",Winter, Tim J. "Introduction." Introduction. The Cambridge Companion to Classical Islamic Theology. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2008. 4–5. Print. usually foreshortened to kalam and sometimes called Islamic scholastic theology, is an Islamic undertaking born out of the need to establish and defend the tenets of Islamic faith against skeptics and detractors.Madeleine Pelner Cosman, Linda Gale Jones, Handbook to Life in the Medieval World, p 391. A scholar of kalam is referred to as a mutakallim (plural mutakallimūn) as distinguished from philosophers, jurists, and scientists.Clinton Bennett, The Bloomsbury Companion to Islamic Studies, p 119. .


Judaism
Jewish apologetic literature can be traced back as far as Aristobulus of Paneas, though some discern it in the works of Demetrius the chronographer (3rd century BCE) traces of the style of "questions" and "solutions" typical of the genre. Aristobulus was a Jewish philosopher of and the author of an apologetic work addressed to Ptolemy VI Philometor. 's is a wide-ranging defense of against many charges laid against Judaism at that time, as too are some of the works of Philo of Alexandria.John Granger Cook (2000) The Interpretation of the New Testament in Greco-Roman paganism p.4., Mohr Siebeck Verlag, Tuebingen, Germany

In response to modern Christian missionaries, and congregations that "are designed to appear Jewish, but are actually fundamentalist Christian churches, which use traditional Jewish symbols to lure the most vulnerable of our Jewish people into their ranks",Simon Schoon, "Noachides and Converts to Judaism", in Jan N. Bremmer, Wout Jac. van Bekkum, Arie L. Molendijk. Cultures of Conversions, Peeters Publishers, 2006, , p. 125. Jews for Judaism is the largest counter-missionary organization in existence, today. Kiruv Organization (Mizrachi), founded by Rabbi Yosef Mizrachi, and Outreach Judaism, founded by Rabbi , are other prominent international organizations that respond "directly to the issues raised by missionaries and cults, by exploring Judaism in contradistinction to fundamentalist Christianity." About Us, Outreach Judaism website. Accessed January 9, 2011.J. Gordon Melton, "The Modern Anti-Cult Movement in Historical Perspective", in Jeffrey Kaplan, Heléne Lööw. The Cultic Milieu: Oppositional Subcultures in an Age of Globalization, , 2002, , p. 285, note 4.


Pantheism
Some pantheists have formed organizations such as the World Pantheist Movement and the Universal Pantheist Society to promote and defend the belief in .


Native Americans
In a famous speech called "Red Jacket on Religion for the White Man and the Red" in 1805, chief gave an apologetic for Native American religion.


In literature
Plato's Apology may be read as both a religious and literary apology; however, more specifically literary examples may be found in the and dedications, which proceed many Early Modern plays, novels, and poems. Eighteenth century authors such as , , and , to name but a few, prefaced the majority of their poetic work with such apologies. In addition to the desire to defend their work, the apologetic preface often suggests the author's attempt to humble his- or herself before the audience.


See also
  • Christian apologetics
  • Existence of God
  • List of apologetic works


Bibliography
  • (1981). 9783900271091, De Nobili Research Library. .


External links
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