mural in Caracas, Venezuela, specifically targeting American imperialism. Spray painted in Spanish "Out with imperialism, only the people save the people"]] Anti-imperialism in political science and international relations is opposition to imperialism or neocolonialism. Anti-imperialist sentiment typically manifests as a political principle in independence struggles against intervention or influence from a Superpower, as well as in opposition to Colonialism. Anti-imperialism can also arise from a specific economic theory, such as in the Leninist interpretation of imperialism (Vladimir Lenin's theory of surplus value being to less developed nations in search of higher profits, eventually leading to imperialism), which is derived from Lenin's 1917 work Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism. People who categorize themselves as anti-imperialists often state that they are opposed to colonialism, colonial empires, hegemony, imperialism and the territorial expansion of a country beyond its established borders.[Richard Koebner and Helmut Schmidt, Imperialism: The Story and Significance of a Political Word, 1840–1960 (2010).]
The phrase gained a wide currency after the Second World War and at the onset of the Cold War as political movements in colonies of European powers promoted national sovereignty. Some anti-imperialist groups who opposed the United States supported the power of the Soviet Union, while in some Marxist schools, such as Maoism, this was criticized as social imperialism. Islamism movements traditionally view Russia and China as imperial and Neocolonialism forces engaged in persecution and oppression of Muslim communities domestically and abroad, in addition to the U.S. and its allies like Israel.
An influential movement independent of the Western world left that advocated religious anti-imperialism was pan-Islamism; which challenged the Western culture model and rose to prominence across various parts of the Muslim world during the 19th and 20th centuries. Its most influential ideologue was the Sunni Islam theologian Rashid Rida, a fierce opponent of Western ideas, who called upon Muslims to rise up in armed resistance by waging jihad against imperialism and re-establish an Caliphate.
Theory
Some Enlightenment writers expressed anti-imperialist ideas in the 18th century, especially targeting
luxury goods as an issue.
[
]
In the late 1870s, the term "imperialism" was introduced to the English language by opponents of the aggressively imperial policies of British Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli (in office: 1874–1880).[Richard Koebner and Helmut Schmidt, Imperialism: The Story and Significance of a Political Word, 1840–1960 (2010)] It was shortly appropriated by supporters of "imperialism" such as Joseph Chamberlain (1836-1914). For some, imperialism designated a policy of idealism and philanthropy; others alleged that it was characterized by political self-interest; and a growing number associated it with capitalist greed. John A. Hobson (1858-1940) and Vladimir Lenin (1870-1924) added a more theoretical macroeconomic connotation to the term. Many theoreticians on the left have followed either or both in emphasizing the structural or systemic character of "imperialism". Such writers have expanded the time-period associated with the term so that it now designates neither a policy, nor a short space of decades in the late-19th century, but a global system extending over a period of centuries, often going back to Christopher Columbus. As the application of the term has expanded, its meaning has shifted along five distinct but often parallel axes: the moral, the economic, the systemic, the cultural and the temporal. Those changes reflect—among other shifts in sensibility—a growing unease with the fact of power, specifically Western power.[Mark F. Proudman, "Words for Scholars: The Semantics of 'Imperialism'". Journal of the Historical Society, September 2008, Vol. 8 Issue 3, p395-433][D. K. Fieldhouse, "Imperialism": An Historiographical Revision", South African Journal of Economic History, March 1992, Vol. 7 Issue 1, pp 45–72]
The relationships between capitalism, aristocracy and imperialism have been discussed and analysed by theoreticians, historians, political scientists such as John A. Hobson and Thorstein Veblen, Joseph Schumpeter and Norman Angell.[G.K. Peatling, "Globalism, Hegemonism and British Power: J. A. Hobson and Alfred Zimmern Reconsidered", History, July 2004, Vol. 89 Issue 295, pp. 381–98] Those intellectuals produced much of their works about imperialism before World War I (1914–1918), yet their combined work informed the study of the impact of imperialism upon Europe and contributed to the political and ideologic reflections on the rise of the military–industrial complex in the United States from the 1950s onwards.
Hobson
John A. Hobson strongly influenced the anti-imperialism of both Marxists and liberals, worldwide through his 1902 book .
[
Imperialism: A Study
]
He argued that the "taproot of imperialism" is not in
nationalism, but in capitalism. As a form of economic organization, imperialism is unnecessary and immoral, the result of the mis-distribution of wealth in a capitalist society. That created an irresistible desire to extend national markets into foreign lands, in search of profits greater than those available in the Mother Country. In the capitalist economy, rich capitalists received a disproportionately higher income than did the working class. If the owners invested their incomes in their factories, the greatly increased productive capacity would exceed the growth in demand for the products and services of said factories.
Hobson was influential in liberal circles, especially in the British Liberal Party.[David Long, Towards a new liberal internationalism: the international theory of JA Hobson (1996).] Historians Peter Duignan and Lewis H. Gann argue that Hobson had an enormous influence in the early-20th century that caused widespread distrust of imperialism:
Optimistically, Hobson argued that domestic social reforms could cure the international disease of imperialism by removing its economic foundation. Hobson theorized that state intervention through taxation could boost broader consumption, create wealth and encourage a peaceful multilateral world-order. Conversely, should the state not intervene, rentiers (people who earn income from property or securities) would generate socially negative wealth that fostered imperialism and protectionism.[P. J. Cain, "Capitalism, Aristocracy and Empire: Some 'Classical' Theories of Imperialism Revisited", Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, March 2007, Vol. 35 Issue 1, pp 25–47][G.K. Peatling, "Globalism, Hegemonism and British Power: J. A. Hobson and Alfred Zimmern Reconsidered", History, July 2004, Vol. 89 Issue 295, pp 381–398]
Liberal anti-imperialism
There have been many examples of liberal anti-imperialism. However, liberal anti-imperialists are distinct from socialist anti-imperialists because they do not
anti-capitalism.
Communist and socialist
In the mid-19th century,
Karl Marx mentioned imperialism as part of the prehistory of the capitalist mode of production in
Das Kapital (1867–1894).
Vladimir Lenin defined imperialism as "the highest stage of capitalism",
[
Lenin: Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism (1917)
]
the economic stage in which
monopoly finance capital becomes the dominant application of capital.
["Imperialism", The Penguin Dictionary of International Relations (1998), by Graham Evans and Jeffrey Newnham. p. 244.] As such, said financial and economic circumstances impelled national governments and private business corporations to worldwide competition for control of natural resources and human labour by means of
colonialism.
["Colonialism", The Penguin Dictionary of International Relations (1998) Graham Evans and Jeffrey Newnham, p. 79.]
Leninism and Marxism–Leninism
The
Leninism views of imperialism and related theories, such as dependency theory, address the economic dominance and exploitation of a country: economic imperialism rather than the military and the political dominance of a people, their country and its natural resources. Hence, the primary purpose of imperialism is economic exploitation, rather than mere control of either a country or of a region. The Marxist and the Leninist denotation thus differs from the usual political science denotation of imperialism as the direct control (intervention, occupation and rule) characteristic of colonial and
neocolonialism empires as used in the realm of international relations.
["Imperialism", The Penguin Dictionary of International Relations (1998) Graham Evans and Jeffrey Newnham, p. 79.]
Lenin adopted Hobson's ideas. In Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism (1917), Lenin outlined the five features of capitalist development that lead to imperialism:
-
Concentration of production and capital leading to the dominance of national and multinational monopolies and cartels.
-
Industrial capital as the dominant form of capital has been replaced by finance capital, with the industrial capitalists increasingly reliant on capital provided by monopolistic financial institutions. "Again and again, the final word in the development of banking is monopoly".
-
The export of the aforementioned finance capital is emphasized over the export of goods.
-
The economic division of the world by multinational cartels.
-
The political division of the world into colonies by the great powers, in which the great powers monopolise investment.
Generally, the relationship among Marxist-Leninists and radical, left-wing organisations who are anti-war, often involves persuading such political activists to progress from pacifism to anti-imperialism—that is, to progress from opposing war in general, to the condemnation of the capitalist economic system in particular.
In the 20th century, the Soviet Union represented itself as the foremost enemy of imperialism, thus the Kremlin gave political and financial support to Third World revolutionary organisations who fought for national independence. This was accomplished through the export of both financial capital and Soviet military apparatuses, with the Soviet Union sending to China,
Vietnam,[
]
Ethiopia, Angola, Egypt and Afghanistan.
However, anarchism as well as many other Marxist organizations, have characterized Soviet foreign policy as imperialism and cited it as evidence that the philosophy of Marxism would not resolve and eliminate imperialism. Mao Zedong developed the theory that the Soviet Union was a social imperialist nation, a socialist people with tendencies to imperialism, an important aspect of Maoist analysis of the history of the Soviet Union.[ Battling Western Imperialism: Mao, Stalin, and the United States (1997), by Michael M. Sheng. p.00.] Contemporarily, the term "anti-imperialism" is most commonly applied by Marxist-Leninists and by political organisations of like ideological persuasion who oppose capitalism, present a Class struggle of society and the like.[ Marxist Theories of Imperialism: A Critical Survey (1990), by Anthony Brewer. p. 293.]
About the nature of imperialism and how to oppose and defeat it, Che Guevara said:
Trotskyism
The concept of
permanent war economy originated in 1945 with an article by
Trotskyist Ed Sard (alias Frank Demby, Walter S. Oakes and T.N. Vance), a theoretician who predicted a post-war
arms race. He argued at the time that the United States would retain the character of a
war economy; even in peacetime, US military expenditure would remain large, reducing the percentage of unemployed compared to the 1930s. He extended this analysis in 1950 and 1951.
[See Peter Drucker, Max Schachtman and his Left. A Socialist Odyssey through the 'American Century', Humanities Press 1994, p. xv, 218; Paul Hampton, "Trotskyism after Trotsky? C'est moi!", in Workers Liberty, vol 55, April 1999, p. 38]
The concept has been a core tenet of the British Socialist Workers Party with founder, Tony Cliff, examining its application to the First World War, American imperialism and colonial empires including Britain, France and Germany.
Islamist anti-imperialism
The 18th and 19th centuries witnessed the rise of numerous
Colony and imperial Islamic resistance movements across various parts of the Muslim World. These included the
jihad movement led by the Imamate of Caucasus and the
Circassia against Russian imperialism during the
Caucasian War (1763–1864 CE). Prominent leaders in this resistance campaign included
Ghazi Muhammad,
Hamzat Bek,
Imam Shamil,
Qerandiqo Berzeg, Jembulat Boletoqo, etc. Other major anti-imperial movements included the
Padri War,
Java War, and the
Aceh War against the Dutch colonisation of Indonesia,
Moro Rebellion against the
United States, the South Asian Jihad movement of Sayyid Ahmad Shahid,
Mahdist State in
Sudan and the Arabian
Muwahhidun that fought British colonialism,
Emir Abdelkader military insurgency against French in Algeria, North-West Frontier Uprisings of the
Pashtuns Pashtun tribes against the
British Raj,
Omar al-Mukhtar's Jihad against
Italian fascism in
Libya, etc. The establishment and defense of
that enforces
Sharia (Islamic law) based on
Quran and
Sunnah, elimination of superstitions and heterodox local practices and folk rituals, etc. were key objectives of these
Islah movements.
These anti-colonial movements inspired the rise of
Pan-Islamism during the late 19th century; which gave birth to numerous
Islamism organisations advocating anti-imperialism across the
Muslim world; such as the Muslim Brotherhood (
Ikhwan al-Muslimeen) and
Jamaat-e-Islami.
Syro-Egyptian
Islamism theoretician
Rashid Rida (1865 CE/1282 AH–1935 CE/1354 AH), a Salafi theologian greatly influenced by preceding militant
movements, was an ardent opponent of European imperial powers; and he called for armed
jihad to defend the Islamic World from encroaching colonialism, complemented by a political programme to establish Islamic states which would implement
Sharia (Islamic laws). He extended this anti-imperialist campaign to the theological level through the Arab
Salafi movement movement; which professed the key theme of returning to the values of
Salaf al-Salih. This encompassed a theological assault on Western ideological currents emanating from the principles of
secularism and
nationalism as well as denunciation of
Western culture cultural imperialism.
After Rashid Rida, the mantle of Islamist anti-imperialism was spearheaded by the Egyptian Muslim Brotherhood founder Hassan al-Banna, revolutionary Islamist leader Sayyid Abul A'la Maududi and Egyptians Jihadist theoretician Sayyid Qutb. Mawdudi held the belief that West was in decline and that restoration of Islamic prowess was inevitable. Openly equating Western colonialism with atheism, Mawdudi called upon Muslims to rally in jihad against the imperialist forces to regain their spiritual, cultural, economic and military sovereignty and self-sufficiency. Sayyid Qutb, an Egyptian scholar influenced by both Mawdudi and Rashid Rida, took their ideas to its logical culmination; proclaiming the necessity of a permanent, un-ending Islamist revolution not only against the imperialists but also its allied regimes in the Muslim world. This revolution against the apostate regimes has to be waged as an armed jihad by an ideological vanguard committed to establish the Islamic state and uphold Tawhid (Islamic monotheism). These ideas gained prominence and arose in influence across the Islamic World during the post-World War II era. During the Cold War period, the Islamism intellectuals from the Muslim Brotherhood and Jamaat-e Islami also launched fervent Anti-communism campaigns, ideologically critiquing socialism and Marxism and chiding leftists as agents of Soviet Imperialism.
In his book " Al Jihad Fil Islam", South Asian revolutionary Islamist scholar Abul A'la Mawdudi made a comprehensive religious refutation of imperialism. He argued that oppressive rulers justify imperialism in the name of progress and socio-political reforms. Describing the main features of imperialism, Mawdudi wrote:
The Indian Jamaat-e-Islami Hind launched a ten-day nationwide campaign titled Anti-Imperialism Campaign in December 2009.
In the worldview of Egyptians Jihadist theoretician Sayyid Qutb, imperialist policies of the Secularity Western regimes were a continuation of their historical "Crusading Spirit".
Political movement
As a self-conscious political movement, anti-imperialism originated in Europe in the late 19th and early 20th centuries in opposition to the growing European
colonialism and the United States control of the Philippines after 1898.
[Harrington, 1935] However, it reached its highest level of popular support in the colonies themselves, where it formed the basis for a wide variety of national liberation movements during the mid-20th century and later. These movements, and their anti-imperialist ideas, were instrumental in the
decolonization process of the 1950s and 1960s, which saw most European colonies in Asia and Africa achieving their independence.
By country
United States
An early use of the term "anti-imperialist" occurred after the United States entered the Spanish–American War in 1898.
[Robert L. Beisner, Twelve against Empire: The Anti-Imperialists, 1898–1900 (1968)] Most activists supported the war itself, but opposed the annexation of new territory, especially the Philippines.
[Julius Pratt, Expansionists of 1898: The Acquisition of Hawaii and the Spanish Islands (1936) pp 266–78] The Anti-Imperialist League was founded on June 15, 1898, in Boston in opposition of the acquisition of the Philippines, which would happen anyway. The anti-imperialists opposed the expansion because they believed imperialism violated the credo of republicanism, especially the need for "consent of the governed". Appalled by American imperialism, the Anti-Imperialist League, which included famous citizens such as
Andrew Carnegie,
Henry James,
William James and
Mark Twain, formed a platform which stated:
Fred Harrington states that "the anti-imperialist's did not oppose expansion because of commercial, religious, constitutional, or humanitarian reasons but instead because they thought that an imperialist policy ran counter to the political doctrines of the Declaration of Independence, Washington's Farewell Address, and Lincoln's Gettysburg Address".[Harrington, 1935, pp 211–12][Richard E. Welch, Jr., Response to Imperialism: The United States and the Philippine-American War, 1899–1902 (1978)][E. Berkeley Tompkins, Anti-Imperialism in the United States: The Great Debate, 1890–1920. (1970)]
The American rejection of the League of Nations in 1919 was accompanied with a sharp American reaction against European imperialism. American textbooks denounced imperialism as a major cause of the World War. The uglier aspects of British colonial rule were emphasized, recalling the long-standing anti-British sentiments in the United States.
United Kingdom and Canada
Anti-imperialism within Britain emerged in the 1890s, especially from within the Liberal Party. For over a century, back to the days of
Adam Smith in 1776, economists had been hostile to imperialism on the grounds that it is a violation of the principles of free trade; they never formed a popular movement. Indeed, imperialism seems to have been generally popular before the 1890s.
[Robert Livingston Schuyler, "The rise of anti-imperialism in England." Political science quarterly 37.3 (1922): 440–471. in JSTOR ] The key impetus around 1900 came from strong public disapproval with the British actions during the Second Boer War (1899–1902). The war was fought against the
Afrikaners, who were
Dutch Empire who had built new homelands in South Africa. Opposition to the Second Boer War was modest when the war began and was generally less widespread than support for it. However, influential groups formed immediately against the war, including the South African Conciliation Committee and W. T. Stead's Stop the War Committee. Much of the opposition in the United Kingdom came from the Liberal Party. Intellectuals and activists in United Kingdom based in the socialist, labour and Fabian movements generally oppose imperialism and John A. Hobson, a Liberal, took many of his ideas from their writings.
[Gregory Claeys, Imperial Sceptics: British Critics of Empire, 1850–1920 (2010) excerpt] After the Boer war, opponents of imperialism turned their attention to the British crown colonies in Africa and Asia.
[Bernard Porter, Critics of Empire: British Radical Attitudes to Colonialism in Africa 1895–1914 (1968).] By the 1920s, the government was sponsoring large-scale exhibits promoting imperialism, notably the 1924 British Empire Exhibition in London and the 1938 Glasgow Empire Exhibition. Some intellectuals used the opportunity to criticise imperialism as a policy.
[Sarah Britton, "‘Come and See the Empire by the All Red Route!’: Anti-Imperialism and Exhibitions in Interwar Britain." History Workshop Journal 69#1 (2010).]
Moderately active anti-imperial movements emerged in Canada and Australia. The French Canadians were hostile to British expansion whilst in Australia, it was the Irish Catholics who were opposed.[C. N. Connolly, "Class, birthplace, loyalty: Australian attitudes to the Boer War." Australian Historical Studies 18.71 (1978): 210–232.] French Canadians argue that Canadian nationalism was the proper and true goal and it sometimes conflicted with loyalty to the British Empire. Many French Canadians claimed that they would fight for Canada but would not fight for the Empire.[Carl Berger, ed. Imperialism and Nationalism, 1884–1914: a conflict in Canadian thought (1969).]
Protestant Canadians, typically of British descent, generally supported British imperialism enthusiastically. They sent thousands of volunteers to fight alongside British and imperial forces against the Boers and in the process identified themselves even more strongly with the British Empire.[Gordon L. Heath, War with a Silver Lining: Canadian Protestant Churches and the South African War, 1899–1902 (McGill-Queen's Press-MQUP, 2009).] A little opposition also came from some English immigrants such as the intellectual leader Goldwin Smith.[R. Craig Brown, "Goldwin Smith and Anti-imperialism." Canadian Historical Review 43.2 (1962): 93–105.] In Canada, the Irish Catholics were fighting the French Canadians for control of the Catholic Church, so the Irish generally supported the pro-British position.[Mark G. McGowan, "The De-Greening of the Irish: Toronto’s Irish‑Catholic Press, Imperialism, and the Forging of a New Identity, 1887–1914." Historical Papers/Communications historiques 24.1 (1989): 118–145.] Anti-imperialism also grew rapidly in India and formed a core element of the demand by Congress for independence.
Soviet Union
The nations which were part of the Soviet sphere of influence were nominally independent countries with separate governments that set their own policies, but those policies had to stay within certain limits decided by the Soviet Union. These limits were enforced by the threat of intervention by Soviet forces, and later the
Warsaw Pact. Major military invasions took place in East Germany in 1953, Hungary in 1956,
Prague Spring and Afghanistan from 1979 to 1989. Countries in the
Eastern Bloc were considered
.
The Soviet Union exhibited tendencies common to historic empires.
Dave, Bhavna (2007). Kazakhstan: Ethnicity, Language and Power. Abingdon, New York: Routledge.
South Korea
South Korean liberals have opposed
China and
imperialism. The No Japan Movement is related to anti-imperialist sentiment in South Korea. On August 14, 2019, seven politicians of the DPK's descendants of independence activists said at a press conference, "In the spirit of Great Korean Independence 100 years ago, let's overcome the economic invasion of
Shinzo Abe's government." (100년 전 대한독립의 정신으로 아베 정부 경제침략을 이겨내자.)
South Korean liberals, unlike protectionist anti-imperialists, believing that the Japanese government's actions that undermined the "
free trade principle" (자유무역 원칙 or 자유무역 철칙) during the Japan–South Korea trade dispute were far-right imperialist 'economic invasion'. (South Korean liberals argue that the Japanese government caused unfair damage to the South Korean economy to avoid compensation for Korean victims of Japanese war crimes during the past imperialist Japan.)
South Korean liberals also oppose the appropriation of Korean culture of the
Chinese people.
Criticism
Antonio Negri and
Michael Hardt assert that traditional anti-imperialism is no longer relevant. In the book
Empire,
[Antonio Negri and Michael Hardt, Empire, Harvard University Press (2001) ] Negri and Hardt argue that imperialism is no longer the practice or domain of any one nation or state. Rather, they claim, the "Empire" is a conglomeration of all states, nations, corporations, media, popular and intellectual culture and so forth; and thus, traditional anti-imperialist methods and strategies can no longer be applied against them.
The political scientist Maria Mälksoo argues that a blind spot in postcolonial studies linked to anti-imperialist movements is that they often ignore Russian imperialism and colonialism.
See also
-
Anti-Americanism
-
Anti-British sentiment
-
Anti-French sentiment
-
Anti-Western sentiment
-
Anti-fascism
-
Colonialism
-
Decentralization
-
Historiography of the British Empire
-
Indigenism
-
Internationalism (politics)
-
Irish nationalism (Irish republicanism)
-
Korean nationalism
-
Anti-Chinese sentiment in Korea
-
Anti-Japanese sentiment in Korea
-
League against Imperialism
-
Left-wing nationalism
-
Localism (politics)
-
National liberation wars
-
National self-determination
-
Postcolonialism
-
Stateless nation
Notes
Further reading
-
Ali, Tariq et al. Anti-Imperialism: A Guide for the Movement .
-
Boittin, Jennifer Anne. Colonial Metropolis: The Urban Grounds of Anti-Imperialism and Feminism in Interwar Paris (2010).
-
Brendon, Piers. "A Moral Audit of the British Empire." History Today, (Oct 2007), Vol. 57 Issue 10, pp 44–47, online at EBSCO.
-
Brendon, Piers. The Decline and Fall of the British Empire, 1781–1997 (2008) excerpt and text search .
-
Cain, P. J. and A.G. Hopkins. British Imperialism, 1688–2000 (2nd ed. 2001), 739pp, detailed economic history that presents the new "gentlemanly capitalists" thesis excerpt and text search .
-
Castro, Daniel, Walter D.Mignolo, and Irene Silverblatt. Another Face of Empire: Bartolomé de Las Casas, Indigenous Rights, and Ecclesiastical Imperialism (2007) excerpt and text search , Spanish colonies.
-
Cullinane, Michael Patrick. Liberty and American Anti-Imperialism, 1898–1909. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012.
-
Ferguson, Niall. Empire: The Rise and Demise of the British World Order and the Lessons for Global Power (2002), excerpt and text search .
-
Friedman, Jeremy, and Peter Rutland. "Anti-imperialism: The Leninist Legacy and the Fate of World Revolution." Slavic Review 76.3 (2017): 591–599.
-
Griffiths, Martin, and Terry O'Callaghan, and Steven C. Roach 2008. International Relations: The Key Concepts. Second Edition. New Millan.
-
Hamilton, Richard. President McKinley, War, and Empire (2006).
-
Hardt, Michael, and Antonio Negri. Empire (2001), influential statement from the left.
-
Harrington, Fred H. "The Anti-Imperialist Movement in the United States, 1898–1900", Mississippi Valley Historical Review, Vol. 22, No. 2 (Sep., 1935), pp. 211–230 in JSTOR .
-
Herman, Arthur. Gandhi & Churchill: The Epic Rivalry that Destroyed an Empire and Forged Our Age (2009) excerpt.
-
Hobson, J.A. Imperialism: A Study (1905) except and text search 2010 edition .
-
James, Lawrence. The Rise and Fall of the British Empire (1997).
-
Karsh, Efraim. Islamic Imperialism: A History (2007) excerpt and text search .
-
Ness, Immanuel, and Zak Cope, eds. The Palgrave encyclopedia of imperialism and anti-imperialism (2 vol. 2016). 1456pp
-
Olson, James S. et al., eds. Historical Dictionary of European Imperialism (1991) online edition .
-
Owen, Nicholas. The British Left and India: Metropolitan Anti-Imperialism, 1885–1947 (2008) excerpt and text search .
-
Polsgrove, Carol. Ending British Rule in Africa: Writers in a Common Cause (2009).
-
Porter, Bernard. The Lion's Share: A History of British Imperialism 1850–2011 (4th ed. 2012), Wide-ranging general history; strong on anti-imperialism.
-
Proudman, Mark F.. "Words for Scholars: The Semantics of 'Imperialism'". Journal of the Historical Society, September 2008, Vol. 8 Issue 3, pp. 395–433.
-
Sagromoso, Domitilla, James Gow, and Rachel Kerr. Russian Imperialism Revisited: Neo-Empire, State Interests and Hegemonic Power (2010).
-
Thornton, A.P. The Imperial Idea and its Enemies (2nd ed. 1985)
-
Tompkins, E. Berkeley, ed. Anti-Imperialism in the United States: The Great Debate, 1890–1920. (1970) excerpts from primary and secondary sources.
-
Tyrell, Ian and Jay Sexton, eds. Empire's Twin: U.S. anti-imperialism from the founding era to the age of terrorism (2015).
-
Wang, Jianwei. "The Chinese interpretation of the concept of imperialism in the anti-imperialist context of the 1920s.," Journal of Modern Chinese History (2012) 6#2 pp 164–181.
External links
