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Abu al-ʿAbbās Abd Allāh ibn Muḥammad ibn ʿAlī ibn ʿAbd Allāh ibn al-ʿAbbās (; 721/722 – 8 June 754), known by his laqab al-Saffah (), was the first caliph of the Abbasid Caliphate, one of the longest and most important in Islamic history.
His al-Saffāḥ means "the Blood-Shedder". It may refer to his ruthless tactics, or perhaps it was used to intimidate his enemies. It was during his inaugural homage as Caliph, delivered in the Great Mosque of Kufa, that he called himself " al-Saffah" ("the Blood-Shedder"), and this title stuck to him due to his massacre of the Umayyads.
Al-Saffah was the son of Muhammad ibn Ali and his mother, Rayta, was the daughter of a certain Ubayd Allah ibn Abd Allah.
As narrated in many hadith, many believed that in the end times a great leader or mahdi would appear from the family of Muhammad, to which Ali belonged, who would deliver Islam from corrupt leadership. The half-hearted policies of the late to tolerate non-Arab Muslims and Shi'as had failed to quell unrest among these minorities.
During the reign of the Umayyad caliph Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik, this unrest led to a revolt in Kufa in southern Iraq, mainly by the town's slaves. Shi'ites revolted in 736 and held the city until 740, led by Zayd ibn Ali, a grandson of Husayn and another member of the Banu Hashim. Zayd's rebellion was put down by Umayyad armies in 740. The revolt in Kufa indicated both the strength of the Umayyads and the growing unrest in the Muslim world.
During the last days of the Umayyad caliphate, Abu al-‘Abbās and his clan chose to begin their rebellion in Greater Khorasan, an important, but remote military region comprising eastern Iran, southern parts of the modern Central Asian republics of Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan and northern Afghanistan. In 743, the death of the Umayyad caliph Hishām provoked a rebellion in the east. Abu al-`Abbās, supported by Shi'as and the residents of Khurasān, led his forces to victory over the Umayyads. The civil war was marked by Millenarianism prophecies encouraged by the beliefs of some Shi'as that al-Saffāḥ was the mahdi. In Shi'ite works such as the al-Jafr, faithful Muslims were told that the brutal civil war was the great conflict between good and evil. The choice of the Umayyads to enter battle with white flags and the Abbasids to enter with black encouraged such theories. The color of white, however, was regarded in much of Persia as a sign of mourning.
In one far-reaching, historic decision, as-Saffāh established Kufa as the new capital of the caliphate, ending the dominance of Damascus in the Islamic political world, and Iraq would now become the seat of the Abbasids power for many centuries. Later tales recount that, concerned that there would be a resurgence of Umayyad power, al-Saffāh invited all of the remaining members of the Umayyad family to a dinner party where he had them clubbed to death before the first course, which was then served to the hosts.Roberts, J: History of the World. Penguin, 1994. The only survivor, Abd al-Rahman ibn Mu'awiya, escaped to the province of al-Andalus (Spain), where the Umayyad dynasty would endure for three more centuries in the form of the Emirate of Córdoba and the subsequent Caliphate of Córdoba. Another version is that al-Saffāḥ's new governor to Syria, 'Abd Allāh ibn 'Ali, hunted down the last of the family dynasty, with only Abd al-Rahmān escaping. Ultimately, 'Abbasid rule was accepted even in Syria, and the beginning of the new Islamic dynasty was considered "free from major internal dissensions."Kennedy, H. (2004). The prophet and the age of the caliphates. 2nd ed. Page 129.
Al-Saffāh's four-year reign was marked with efforts to consolidate and rebuild the caliphate. His supporters were represented in the new government, but apart from his policy toward the Umayyad family, al-Saffāh is widely viewed by historians as having been a mild victor. Jews, Nestorian Christians, and Persians were well represented in his government and in succeeding Abbasid administrations. Education was also encouraged, and the first , staffed by skilled Chinese people prisoners captured at the Battle of Talas, were set up in Samarkand.
Equally revolutionary was al-Saffāh's reform of the army, which came to include non-Muslims and non-Arabs in sharp contrast to the Umayyads who refused any soldiers of either type. Al-Saffāh selected the gifted Abu Muslim as his military commander, an officer who would serve until 755 in the Abbasid army.
Not all Muslims accept the legitimacy of his caliphate, however. According to later Shia Islam, al-Saffāh turned back on his promises to the partisans of the Alids in claiming the title caliph for himself. The Shi'a had hoped that their imam would be named head of the caliphate, inaugurating the era of peace and prosperity the millennialists had believed would come. The betrayal alienated al-Saffāh's Shi'a supporters, although the continued amity of other groups made Abbasid rule markedly more solvent than that of the Umayyads.
Caliph Abu al-`Abbās `Abdu’llāh al-Saffāḥ died of smallpox on 8 June 754 (13 Dhu al-Hijja 136 AH), only four years after taking the title of caliph. Before he died, al-Saffah appointed his brother al-Mansur and, following him, the caliph's nephew Isa ibn Musa as his successors; ibn Musa, however, never filled the position.
The defeat marked the end of Tang westward expansion and resulted in Muslim control of Transoxiana for the next 400 years. Control of this region was economically beneficial for the Abbasids because it was on the Silk Road. Historians debate whether or not Chinese prisoners captured in the aftermath of the battle brought paper-making technology to the Middle East, where it eventually spread to Europe.
The numbers of combatants involved in the Battle of Talas are not known with certainty; however, various estimates exist. The Abbasid army (200,000 Muslim troops according to Chinese estimates, though these numbers may be greatly exaggerated) which included contingents from their Tibetan Empire ally met the combined army of 10,000 Tang Chinese and 20,000 Karluk mercenaries (Arab records put the Chinese forces at 100,000 which also may be greatly exaggerated).The strength of Arabs is not recorded for this battle, but the armies to the east of greater Khorasan controlled by the Arabs later were estimated by the Chinese in 718 with 900,000 troops available to respond according to Bai Shouyi, Bai however never estimate any Abbasid army figures. (Bai 2003, pp. 225–26).
In the month of July 751, the Abbasid forces joined in combat with the Tang Chinese force (the combined army of Tang Chinese and Karluk mercenaries) on the banks of the Talas river.
The Tang army was subjected to a devastating defeat. The Tang dynasty's defeat was due to the defection of Karluks Mercenary and the retreat of Fergana Valley allies who originally supported the Chinese. The Karluk mercenaries, two-thirds of the Tang army, defected to the Abbasids during the battle; Karluk troops attacked the Tang army from close quarters while the main Abbasid forces attacked from the front. The Tang troops were unable to hold their positions, and the commander of the Tang forces, Gao Xianzhi, recognized that defeat was imminent and managed to escape with some of his Tang regulars with the help of Li Siye. Out of an estimated 10,000 Tang troops, only 2,000 managed to return from Talas to their territory in Central Asia. Despite losing the battle, Li did inflict heavy losses on the pursuing Arab army after being reproached by Duan Xiushi. After the battle, Gao was prepared to organize another Tang army against the Arabs when the devastating An Shi Rebellion broke out in 755. When the Tang capital was taken by rebels, all Chinese armies stationed in Central Asia were ordered back to China proper to crush the rebellion.Bai, pp. 226–28.
Also in 751, the Byzantine Emperor Constantine V led an invasion across the frontier of the Caliphate. The Byzantines captured Theodosiopolis (Erzurum) and Melitene (Malatya), which was demolished. There was no serious attempt to retain control of the captured cities, except for Camachus (modern Kemah, Erzincan), which was garrisoned.Treadgold (1997), pp. 360, 362Bonner, p. 107
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