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Sepphoris ( ; ), known in Arabic as Saffuriya (صفورية ) and in Hebrew language as Tzipori (צִפּוֹרִי Ṣīppōrī)Palmer (1881), p. 115 is an archaeological site and former Palestinian village located in the central Galilee region of Israel, north-northwest of Nazareth. It lies above sea level and overlooks the Beit Netofa Valley. The site holds a rich and diverse historical and architectural legacy that includes remains from the Hellenistic, ancient Rome, Byzantine Empire, early Islamic, Crusader, Mamluk Sultanate and Ottoman Empire periods.
Sepphoris was a significant town in ancient Galilee. Originally named for the Hebrew word for bird, the city was also known as Eirenopolis and Diocaesarea during different periods of its history. In the first century CE, it was a Jews city, and following the Bar Kokhba revolt of 132–135, Sepphoris was one of the Galilean centers where rabbinical families from neighboring Judea relocated.Miller (1984), p. 132 In late antiquity, Sepphoris appears to have been predominantly Jewish, serving as a spiritual and cultural center, though it also housed a Christian Diocese and maintained a multi-ethnic population. Remains of a synagogue dated to the first half of the fifth century were discovered on the northern side of town. The Mosaic Pavements of Roman and Byzantine Zippori
Since late antiquity, Sepphoris was believed to be the birthplace of Mary, mother of Jesus, and the village where Saints Saint Anne and Joachim are often said to have resided, where today a fifth-century basilica is excavated at the site honouring the birth of Mary. The town was later conquered by Arab Rashidun forces during the 7th-century Muslim conquest of the Levant and remained under successive Muslim rule until the First Crusade. Before the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, Saffuriya was a Palestinians village with a population of approximately 5,000 people at the time of its depopulation. Moshav Tzippori was established adjacent to the site in 1949. It falls under the jurisdiction of Jezreel Valley Regional Council, and in had a population of .
The area where the remains of the ancient city have been excavated, occupied until 1948 by the Arab village, was designated an archaeological reserve named Tzipori National Park in 1992. Zippori and the Mona Lisa of the Galilee Notable structures at the site include a Roman theatre, two early Christian churches, a Crusader fort partly rebuilt by Zahir al-Umar in the 18th century, and over sixty different dating from the third to the sixth century CE.Weiss, Zeev (2009). "The Mosaics of the Nile Festival Building at Sepphoris and the legacy of the Antiochene Tradition". Katrin Kogman-Appel, Mati Meyer (eds.). Between Judaism and Christianity: Art Historical Essays in Honor of Elisheva (Elizabeth) Revel-Neher, BRILL, pp. 9–24, p. 10.
The name of the city changed during the years (see below sections), but during the Trajan's reign the city had again the name Sepphoris as we can see from the city's coins that bore the inscription " ΣΕΠΦΩΡΗΝΩΝ" ("of the people of Sepphoris").
This name was not used by Jewish writers, who continued to refer to it as Zippori.
According to , the old fortress of Zippori was encompassed by a wall during the era of Joshua.Shivti'el, Yinon (2019). Cliff Shelters and Hiding Complexes: The Jewish Defense Methods in Galilee During the Roman Period. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, p.46
In 104 BCE, the Judean priestly dynasty of the conquered Galilee under the leadership of either Alexander Jannaeus or Aristobulus I and at this time the town may have been administered by a quarter-master, probably Jewish, and by the middle of the 1st century BCE, after the campaigns of Pompey, it fell under Roman rule in 63 BCE. Around 57 BCE, the city became one of the five of Roman influence in the Near East.Josephus, J.W. 1.170Strange, James F. (2015). "Sepphoris: The Jewel of the Galilee". Galilee in the Late Second Temple and Mishnaic Periods. Volume 2: The Archaeological Record from Cities, Towns, and Villages. Edited by David A. Fiensy and James Riley Strange (Minneapolis, MN: Fortress), 22–38, 26.
After Herod's death in 4 BCE, a rebel named Judas, son of a local bandit, Ezekias, attacked Sepphoris, then the administrative center of the Galilee, and, sacking its treasury and weapons, armed his followers in a revolt against Herodian rule. The Roman governor in Syria, Varus is reported by Josephus – perhaps in an exaggeration, since archaeology has failed to verify traces of the conflagration – to have burnt the city down, and sold its inhabitants into slavery.Eric M. Meyers,'Sepphoris on the Eve of the Great Revolt (67–68 C.E.): Archaeology and Josephus,' in Eric M. Meyers, Galilee Through the Centuries: Confluence of Cultures, Eisenbrauns (1999), pp. 109ff., p. 114:(Josephus, Ant. 17.271-87; War 2.56–69). After Herod's son, Herod Antipas was made tetrarch, or governor, he proclaimed the city's new name to be Autocratoris, and rebuilt it as the "Ornament of the Galilee" (Josephus, Ant. 18.27).Steve Mason, ed. (2008). Flavius Josephus: Translation and Commentary. Judean war. Vol. 1B. 2, BRILL, p. 138. The meaning of 'autocrator' is not clear, and may denote either autonomy or reference to a Roman emperor. Antipas expanded upon Herod's palace/arsenal, and built a city wall. An ancient route linking Sepphoris to Legio, and further south to Sebastia (ancient Samaria), is believed to have been paved by the Romans around this time.Richardson (1996), p. 133 The new population was loyal to Rome.
Maurice Casey writes that, although Sepphoris during the early first century was "a very Jewish city", some of the people there did speak Greek. A lead weight dated to the first century bears an inscription in Greek with three Jewish names. Several scholars have suggested that Jesus, while working as a craftsman in Nazareth, may have travelled to Sepphoris for work purposes, possibly with Saint Joseph and brothers.Craig A. Evans, ed. (2014). The Routledge Encyclopedia of the Historical Jesus, Routledge, pp. 37, 296. Casey states that this is entirely possible, but is likewise impossible to historically verify. Jesus does not seem to have visited Sepphoris during his public ministry and none of the sayings recorded in the Synoptic Gospels mention it.
The inhabitants of Sepphoris did not join the Jewish revolt against Roman rule of 66 CE. The Roman Legatus in Syria, Cestius Gallus, killed some 2,000 "brigands and rebels" in the area.Cohen (2002), p. 195 The Jerusalemite Josephus, a son of Jerusalem's priestly elite had been sent north to recruit the Galilee into the rebellion's fold, but was only partially successful. He made two attempts to capture Sepphoris, but failed to conquer it, the first time because of fierce resistance, the second because a garrison came to assist in the city's defence.Cohen (2002), p. 152. Around the time of the rebellion Sepphoris had a Roman theater, and in later periods, bath-houses and mosaic floors. Rejected by Sepphoris and forced to camp outside the city, Josephus went on to Yodfat, which did seem interested in the rebellion, – the Siege of Yodfat ended on 20 July 67 CE. Towns and villages that did not rebel were spared and in Galilee they were the majority. Searching for Exile, Truth or Myth?, Ilan Ziv's film, screened on BBCFour, 3 November 2013 Coins minted in the city at the time of the revolt carried the inscription Neronias and Eirenopolis, "City of Peace". After the revolt, coins bore depictions of laurel wreaths, palm trees, caduceuses and ears of barley.Chancey, Mark A. The Myth of a Gentile Galilee.
George Francis Hill and Peter Schäfer consider that the city's name was changed to Diocaesarea in 129/30, just prior to the Bar Kokhba revolt, in Hadrian's time. This gesture was done in honour of the visiting Roman emperor and his identification with Zeus Olympias, reflected in Hadrian's efforts in building temples dedicated to the supreme Mount Olympus god.
As late as the third-fourth centuries, Sepphoris is believed to have been settled by one of the twenty-four priestly courses, Jedaiah by name, a course mentioned in relation to the town itself in both the Jerusalem Talmud ( Taanit 4:5) and in the Caesarea Inscription. (Hebrew) Others, however, cast doubt about Sepphoris ever being under a "priestly oligarchy" by the third century, and that it may simply reflect a misreading of Talmudic sources.Stuart S. Miller (2002). "Priests, Purities, and the Jews of Galilee". In Zangenberg, Attridge, Martin (eds.), pp. 375–401 (see 379–382).
Aside from being a center of spiritual and religious studies, it developed into a busy metropolis for commerce due to its proximity to important trade routes through Galilee. Hellenistic and Jewish influences seemed blended together in daily town life while each group, Jewish, pagan and Christian, maintained its distinct identity.Zangenberg, Attridge, Martin,
eds. (2002), pp. 9, 438.
In the aftermath of the Jewish revolt against Constantius Gallus of 351–352, Diocaesarea, the epicenter of the revolt, was razed.Bernard Lazare and Robert Wistrich (1995). Antisemitism: Its History and Causes. University of Nebraska Press, . Philostorgius, speaking of these times, wrote: "The Jews of Diocæsarea (Sepphoris) also took up arms and invaded Palestine and the neighboring territories, with the design of shaking off the Roman yoke. On hearing of their insurrection, Gallus Caesar, who was then in Antioch, sent troops against them, defeated them, and destroyed Diocæsarea." Diocaesarea was further affected by the Galilee earthquake of 363, but rebuilt soon afterwards, and retained its importance in the greater Jewish community of Galilee, both socially, commercially, and spiritually.
Towards the end of the 4th century, church father Epiphanius described Sepphoris as predominantly Jewish, a view strongly supported by rabbinic literature, which sheds lights on the town's sages and synagogues. The town was also the center of a Christian bishopric. Three of its early bishops are known by name: Dorotheus (mentioned in 451), Marcellinus (mentioned in 518), and Cyriacus (mentioned in 536). Pius Bonifacius Gams, Series episcoporum Ecclesiae Catholicae, Leipzig 1931, p. 454 Konrad Eubel, Hierarchia Catholica Medii Aevi, vol. 4, p. 175 Raymond Janin, v. 2. Diocésarée, in Dictionnaire d'Histoire et de Géographie ecclésiastiques, vol. XIV, Paris 1960, coll. 493.494 As a diocese that is no longer residential, it is listed in the Annuario Pontificio among . Annuario Pontificio 2013 (Libreria Editrice Vaticana, 2013, ), p. 881Names of its titular bishop from the 18th to the 20th century can be found at GCatholic.com
The ninth-century Islamic scholar Ya'qubi noted that Saffuriyyah was taken during the first conquest by the Arab armies in Palestine.le Strange (1890), p.32 in 634.Khalidi (1992), p. 351. Later, the city was incorporated into the expanding Umayyad Caliphate, and coins were minted in Sepphoris for the Jund al-Urdunn by the new rulers.Aubin (2000), p. 12 A stone-built aqueduct dating to the early Umayyad period (7th century CE) has been excavated.Berger and Barzilai (2013), Nahal Zippori 23 Saffuriya was engaged in trade with other parts of the empire at the time; for example, cloaks made in Saffuriyya were worn by people in Medina.Crone (2004), p. 102 Umayyad rule was replaced by Abbasid rule.
In 1255, the village and its fortifications were back in Crusader hands, as a document from that year shows it belonged to the archbishop of Nazareth,Röhricht (1893), RRH, pp. 326-327, No 1242; cited in Pringle (1998), p. 210 but by 1259, the bishop experienced unrest among the local Muslim farmers.Röhricht (1893), RRH, p. 335, No 1280; cited in Pringle (1998), p. 210
Saffuriyyah was captured between 1263 and 1266 by the Mamluk sultan Baybars.
It is reported that in 1745 Zahir al-Umar, who grew up in the town,Pappe, Illan (2010) The Rise and Fall of a Palestinian Dynasty. The Husaynis 1700–1968. Saqi, . p. 35. built a fort on the hill overlooking Saffuriya. A map from Napoleon's invasion of 1799 by Pierre Jacotin showed the place, named as Safoureh.Karmon (1960), p. 166
In the early 19th century, the British traveller J. Buckingham noted that all the inhabitants of Saffuriya were Muslim, and that the house of St. Anna had been completely demolished.Buckingham (1821), pp. 90-91
In the late 19th century, Saffuriyya was described as village built of stone and mud, situated along the slope of a hill. The village contained the remains of the Church of St. Anna and a square tower, said to have been built in the mid-18th century. The village had an estimated 2,500 residents, who cultivated 150 (1 faddan = 100–250 dunams), on some of this land they had planted olive trees.Conder and Kitchener (1881), SWP I, pp. 279 −280. Quoted in Khalidi (1992), p. 351.
A population list from about 1887 showed that Sepphoris had about 2,940 inhabitants; all Muslims.Schumacher (1888), p. 182
In 1900, an elementary school for boys was founded, and later, a school for girls.
Though it lost its centrality and importance as a cultural center under the Ottomans (1517–1918) and the British Mandate (1918–1948), the village thrived agriculturally. Saffuriyya's , and wheat were famous throughout the Galilee.
By the 1931 census the population had increased to 3,147; 3,136 Muslims and 11 Christians, in a total of 747 houses.Mills (1932), p. 76 In summer of 1931, archaeologist Leroy Waterman began the first excavations at Saffuriya, digging up part of the school playground, formerly the site of the Crusader fort.
A local council was established in 1923. The expenditure of the council grew from 74 Palestine pound in 1929 to 1,217 in 1944.
In the 1945 statistics, the population was 4,330; 4,320 Muslims and 10 Christians, and the total land area was 55,378 . By 1948, Saffuriya was the largest village in the Galilee both by land size and population.
The land in the area was considered highly fertile. In 1944/45 a total of 21,841 of village land was used for cereals, 5,310 dunams were irrigated or used for orchards, mostly olive trees,Government of Palestine, Department of Statistics. Village Statistics, April 1945. Quoted in Hadawi (1970), p. 110 while 102 dunams were classified as built-up land.Government of Palestine, Department of Statistics. Village Statistics, April 1945. Quoted in Hadawi (1970), p. 160 Multiple olive oil factories were located nearby, and children attended one of two schools, divided by gender.
Many settled in Nazareth in a quarter now known as the al-Safafira quarter because of the large number of Saffuriyya natives living there. As the Israeli government considers them present absentee, they cannot go back to their old homes and have no legal recourse to recover them.Kacowicz and Lutomski (2007), p. 140
The works of the poet Taha Muhammad Ali, a native of Saffuriyya expelled from the town, and their relationship to the landscape of Saffuriya before 1948, are the subject of Adina Hoffman's My Happiness Bears No Relation to Happiness (Yale University Press, 2009).
The area remained under martial law until the general lifting of martial law in Israel in 1966. Most of the remains of Saffuriya were removed in a late-1960s program to clear depopulated Arab villages. The site of the Arab village was planted with pine trees. By 2011, five books about the Palestinian village history had been published.Davis (2011), p. 30
On 20 February 1949, the Israeli moshav of Tzippori was founded southeast of the older village. The pomegranate and olive trees were replaced with crops for cattle fodder.Benvenisti (2002), p. 216
Saffuriya is among the Palestinian villages for which commemorative Marches of Return have taken place, typically as part of Nakba Day, such as the demonstrations organized by the Association for the Defence of the Rights of the Internally Displaced (ADRID).
The most famous image is that of a young woman, possibly representing Venus, which has been dubbed the "Mona Lisa of the Galilee". The surprises of Sepphoris Smaller mosaic tesserae were used, which allowed for greater detail and a more lifelike result, as seen in the shading and blush of her cheeks.
The mosaic shows the "tamid" sacrifice, the showbread, and the basket of first fruits form the Temple in Jerusalem. Also shown are a building facade, probably representing the Temple, incense shovels, , and the seven-branched menorah from the Temple. Another section shows Aaron dressed in priestly robes preparing to offer sacrifices of oil, flour, a bull and a lamb.
An Aramaic inscription reads "May he be remembered for good Yudan son of Isaac the Priest and Paragri his daughter Amen Amen" Jewish Heritage Report Vol. I, Nos. 3–4 / Winter 1997–98 Sepphoris Mosaic Symposium Held in Conjunction with Sepphoris Mosaic Exhibition by Leslie Bussis Tait
In 1983, James F. Strange of the University of South Florida conducted a probe of the Crusader Fortress at the top and continued excavating until 2010 on the top in Waterman'
Since 1990 large areas of Zippori have been excavated by an archaeological team working on behalf of the Hebrew University's Institute of Archaeology.Israel Antiquities Authority, Excavators and Excavations Permit for Year 2010, Survey Permit # G-38
In 2012, a survey of the site was conducted by Zidan Omar on behalf of the Israel Antiquities Authority (IAA).Israel Antiquities Authority, Excavators and Excavations Permit for Year 2012, Survey Permit # A-6675 In June 2018, archaeologists discovered two subterranean Byzantine-period at Tzippori National Park.
Late Roman and Byzantine periods
Following the Bar Kokhba revolt of 132–135, many Jewish refugees from devastated Judea settled there, turning it into a center of Jewish religious and spiritual life. Rabbi Yehuda Hanasi, the compiler of the Mishnah, a commentary on the Torah, moved to Sepphoris, along with the Sanhedrin, the highest Jewish religious court. Before moving to Tiberias by 220, some Jewish academies of learning, Yeshiva, were also based there. Galilee was predominantly populated by Jews from the end of the 2nd century to the 4th century CE.Avian, Mordecai (2007). "Distribution Maps of Archaeological data from the Galilee". In Jürgen Zangenberg, Harold W. Attridge, Dale B. Martin (eds.), Religion, Ethnicity, and Identity in Ancient Galilee. Mohr Siebeck, pp. 115–132 (see 132).
Early Muslim period
The fourth century saw Jewish Zippori losing its centrality as the main Jewish city of the Galilee in favour of Tiberias, and its population dwindled away. With the Muslim conquest of the region, a new village rose on the ruins of ancient Zippori/Sepphoris, known by the name Saffuriya. Saffuriya's main development occurred during the Mamluk period (13th–16th centuries). Various Islamic dynasties controlled the site, with an interlude during the Crusades, from the 630s and up until World War I.
Crusader, Ayyubid and Mamluk periods
At the end of the 11th century, the First Crusade invaded the region and established Crusader states, with the Kingdom of Jerusalem replacing Muslim rule over Saffuriya. During the Crusader period, Sephoris changed hands several times. The Crusaders built a fort and watchtower atop the hill overlooking the town,Conder and Kitchener (1881), SWP I, pp. 335-338Pringle (1997), p. 92 and a church dedicated to Saint Anne, the mother of Mary, mother of Jesus.Pringle (1998), pp. 209-210 This became one of their local bases in the kingdom, and the town was called in or Sephoris. In 1187, the field army of the Latin kingdom marched from their well-watered camp at Sephoris to be cut off and destroyed at the Battle of Hattin by the Ayyubid dynasty sultan, Saladin.
Ottoman period
Saffuriya (, also transliteration Safurriya and Suffurriye), came under the rule of the Ottoman Empire after it defeated the Mamluks at the Battle of Marj Dabiq in 1516. An Ottoman firman of 1572 describes Saffuriyya as one of a group of villages within the sanjak of Safad, which was part of the Qaysi faction, and that had rebelled against the Ottoman authorities.Heydn (1960), pp. 83–84. Cited in Petersen (2001), p. 269 In 1596, the population was recorded as consisting of 366 families and 34 bachelors, all Muslim. Saffuriyya was larger than neighboring Nazareth but smaller than Kafr Kanna. The villagers paid a fixed tax rate of 25% on various agricultural products, including wheat, barley, olive trees, goats and beehives, in addition to a press for olive oil or grape syrup and "occasional revenues"; a total of 31,244 akçe. 3/24 of the revenuer went to a Waqf.Hütteroth and Abdulfattah (1977), p. 188 A number of important scholars came from the village during this period,Khalidi (1992), pp. 350–353 including the historian, poet and jurist al-Hasan al-Burini (d. 1615),Brockelmann (1960), p. 1333 the qadi (head judge), al-Baq'a al-Saffuri (d. 1625) and the poet and qadi Ahmad al-Sharif (d. 1633).
British Mandate period
According to the British Mandate's 1922 census of Palestine, Saffuriyeh had 2,582 inhabitants; 2,574 Muslims and 8 Christians,Barron (1923), Table XI, Sub-district of Nazareth, p. 38 where the Christians were all Roman Catholics.Barron (1923), Table XVI, p. 51
State of Israel
The Arab village had a history of anti-Yishuv activities and supported the Arab Liberation Army during the 1948 Arab–Israeli War.Morris (2004), pp. 417, 418 516–517 On 1 July 1948, the village was bombarded by Israeli aircraft.IIED, 1994, p. 95 On 16 July it was captured by Israeli forces along with the rest of the Lower Galilee in Operation Dekel. The villagers put up some resistance and managed to destroy several armoured cars in an ambush.O'Ballance, Edgar (1956) The Arab-Israeli War. 1948. Faber & Faber, London. p. 157. Following the collapse of the resistance, all but 80 of the villagers fled. Some made their way northwards toward Lebanon, finally settling there in the refugee camps of Ain al-Hilweh and Shatila and the adjacent Sabra neighborhood. Others fled south to Nazareth and the surrounding countryside. After the attack, the villagers returned but were evicted again in September 1948. On 7 January 1949, 14 residents were deported and the remaining 550 were resettled in neighboring Arab villages such as 'Illut.
Archaeological park
Roman and Byzantine city
Much of the town has been excavated, revealing Jewish homes along a main cobblestone street. Several images have been found carved into the stones of the street, including that of a menorah, and another image that resembles some ancient game reminiscent of tic-tac-toe. Stepped pools have been uncovered throughout Sepphoris, and it is generally believed that these may well have been used as Mikvah, Jewish ritual baths.Stuart S. Millar, 'Review Essay: Roman Imperialism, Jewish Self-Definition, and Rabbinic Society,' AJS 31:2 (2007), 329–362 DOI: 10.1017/S0364009407000566 pp.340-341, with notes 24,25.
Roman theatre
The Roman theatre sits on the northern slope of the hill, and is about 45 m in diameter, seating 4500. Most of it is carved into the hillside, but some parts are supported by separate stone pillars. The theatre shows evidence of ancient damage, possibly from the earthquake in 363.
Nile mosaic villa
A modern structure stands to one side of the excavations, overlooking the remains of a 5th-century public building with a large and intricate mosaic floor. Some believe the room was used for festival rituals involving a celebration of water, and possibly covering the floor in water. Drainage channels have been found in the floor, and the majority of the mosaic seems devoted to measuring the floods of the Nile, and celebrations of those floods.
Dionysus mosaic villa
A Roman villa, built around the year 200, contains an elaborate mosaic floor in what is believed to have been a triclinium. In Roman tradition, seating would have been arranged in a U-shape around the mosaic for guests to recline as they ate, drank and socialised. The mosaic features images of Dionysus, god of wine and of socialising, along with Pan and Hercules in several of the 15 panels. The mosaic depicts a wine-drinking contest between Dionysus and Hercules. Unique Byzantine-era winepresses unearthed in roofed water cistern in Tzippori
Byzantine-period synagogue
The remains of a 5th-century synagogue have been uncovered in the lower section of the city. Measuring 20.7 meters by 8 meters wide, it was located at the edge of the town. The mosaic floor is divided into seven parts. Near the entrance is a scene showing the angels visiting Sarah. The next section shows the binding of Isaac. There is a large zodiac with the names of the months written in Hebrew. A depiction of the Greek sun god Helios sits in the middle, in his chariot. The last section shows two lions flanking a wreath, their paws resting on the head of an ox.
Crusader tower
The Crusader fortress on the hill overlooking the Roman theater was built in the 12th century on the foundation of an earlier Byzantine structure. The fortress is a large square structure, 15m x15m, and approximately 10 m. high. The lower portion of the building consists of reused antique spolia, including a sarcophagus with decorative carvings. The upper part of the structure and the doorway were added by Zahir al-Umar in the 18th century. Noticeable features from the rebuilding are the rounded corners which are similar to those constructed under Zahir in the fort in Shefa-'Amr. The upper part of the building was used as a school during the reign of Abdul Hamid II in the early 1900s (late Ottoman era), and used for this purpose until 1948.Petersen (2001), pp. 269-270
Excavation history
Zippori was first excavated by Leory Waterman of University of Michigan in 1931. https://lsa.umich.edu/kelsey/publications/all-publications/leroy-waterman-and-the-university-of-michigan-excavations-at-sep.html
http://www.centuryone.org/sepphoris-site.html
See also
Notes
Bibliography
(1977). 9783920405414, Erlanger Geographische Arbeiten, Sonderband 5. Erlangen, Germany: Vorstand der Fränkischen Geographischen Gesellschaft. . ISBN 9783920405414
External links
Categories: Populated Places Established In The 5th Millennium Bc, Ancient Israel And Judah, Archaeological Sites In Israel, Crusader Castles, Castles And Fortifications Of The Kingdom Of Jerusalem, Castles In Israel, National Parks Of Israel, Diocaesarea In Palaestina, District Of Nazareth, Arab Villages Depopulated During The 1948 Arab–israeli War, Talmud Places, Populated Places In Northern District, Roman Towns And Cities In Israel, Ancient Jewish Settlements Of Galilee, Church Buildings In The Kingdom Of Jerusalem, Israeli Mosaics, Mary, Mother Of Jesus, Herod Antipas
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