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Satipatthana (; ) is a central practice in the Buddha's teachings, meaning "the establishment of mindfulness" or "presence of mindfulness", or alternatively "foundations of mindfulness", aiding the development of a wholesome state of mind. In Theravada Buddhism, applying mindful attention to four domains, the body, feelings, the mind, and key principles or categories of the Buddha's teaching ( dhammās), is thought to aid the elimination of the five hindrances and the development of the seven aspects of wakefulness.
The Satipatthana Sutta is probably the most influential meditation text in modern Theravada Buddhism,Sujato (2012), pp. 1–2. on which the teachings of the Vipassana movement are based. While these teachings are found in all Buddhist traditions, modern Theravada and the Vipassana Movement are known especially for promoting the practice of satipaṭṭhāna as developing mindfulness to gain insight into impermanence, thereby reaching a first state of liberation. In the popular understanding, mindfulness has developed into a practice of bare awareness to calm the mind.
is a compound term that has been parsed (and thus translated) in two ways, namely '''' and ''''. The separate terms can be translated as follows:
The compound terms have been translated as follows:
While the latter parsing and translation is more traditional, the former has been given etymological and contextual authority by contemporary Buddhist scholars such as Bhikkhu Analayo and Bhikkhu Bodhi.
Anālayo argues from an etymological standpoint that, while "foundation of mindfulness" is supported by the Pali literature, the term (foundation) was otherwise unused in the Pāli and is only first used in the Abhidhamma. In contrast, the term (presence or establishment) can in fact be found throughout the nikayas and is readily visible in the Sanskrit equivalents of the compound Pāli phrase (Skt., or ). Thus Anālayo states that "presence of mindfulness" (as opposed to "foundation of mindfulness") is more likely to be etymologically correct.Anālayo (2006), pp. 29–30
Like Anālayo, Bodhi assesses that "establishment of mindfulness" is the preferred translation. However, Bodhi's analysis is more contextual than Anālayo's. According to Bodhi, while "establishment of mindfulness" is normally supported by the textual context, there are exceptions to this rule, such as with SN 47.42 where a translation of "foundation of mindfulness" is best supported.Bodhi (2000), p. 1504 Soma uses both "foundations of mindfulness" and "arousing of mindfulness."Soma (1941/2003)
According to Anālayo, sati does not literally mean memory, but "that which facilitates and enables memory." This is particularly applicable in the context of satipaṭṭhāna, in which sati does not refer to remembering past events, but an "awareness of the present moment", and to remember to stay in that awareness (especially if one's attention wanders away). Anālayo states that it is this clear and awake state of presence that allows one to easily remember whatever is experienced. He also states that sati is a detached, uninvolved and non-reactive observation which does not interfere with what it is observing (such an active function is instead associated with right effort, not mindfulness). This allows one to clearly attend to things in a more sober, objective and impartial manner. Regarding upaṭṭhāna, Anālayo writes that it means "being present" and "attending" in this context. He further states: "Understood in this way, "satipaṭṭhāna" means that sati "stands by", in the sense of being present; sati is "ready at hand", in the sense of attending to the current situation. Satipaṭṭhāna can then be translated as "presence of mindfulness" or as "attending with mindfulness."
Paul Williams (referring to Frauwallner) states that satipaṭṭhāna practice refers to "constantly watching sensory experience in order to prevent the arising of cravings which would power future experience into rebirths."
Rupert Gethin, who argues that satipaṭṭhāna is derived from sati+ upaṭṭhāna, sees satipaṭṭhāna as "the activity of observing or watching the body, feelings, mind and dhammas," as well as "a quality of mind that 'stands near'" (the literal meaning of upaṭṭhāna) or "serves' the mind," and even "presence of mind".Gethin (2001), pp. 30–32. Gethin further notes that sati ('mindfulness') refers to "remembering" or "having in mind" something. It is keeping something in mind without wavering or losing it.Gethin (2001), pp. 36 – 40.
Bhikkhu Bodhi writes that sati is "a presence of mind, attentiveness or awareness" as well as " bare attention, a detached observation of what is happening within us and around us in the present moment ... the mind is trained to remain in the present, open, quiet, alert, contemplating the present event."Bodhi, Bhikkhu (2010). The Noble Eightfold Path: The Way to the End of Suffering. pp. 79–80. Buddhist Publication Society. He also states that sati is "what brings the field of experience into focus and makes it accessible to insight." According to Bodhi, to be mindful, "all judgements and interpretations have to be suspended, or if they occur, just registered and dropped."
Bhante Gunaratana explains satipaṭṭhāna practice as bringing full awareness to our present moment bodily and mental activities.Gunaratana, Bhante Henepola (2012) The Four Foundations of Mindfulness in Plain English, pp. 1–2.
According to Sujato, mindfulness is "the quality of mind which recollects and focuses awareness within an appropriate frame of reference, bearing in mind the what, why, and how of the task at hand."Sujato (2012), A Swift Pair of Messengers, p. 35. INWARD PATH, Penang – Malaysia.
The Sarvastivada Saṃyukta Āgama (SĀ, Taisho Tripitaka #99) contains an entire section devoted to smṛtyupasthāna, which parallels the Pali Satipaṭṭhāna-samyutta.Choong Mun-keat (2010) "Problems and Prospects of the Chinese Saṃyukta Āgama" According to Sujato, the Sarvāstivāda Smṛtyupasthāna Sūtra seems to emphasize samatha or calm abiding, while the Theravadin version emphasizes vipassana or insight.Sujato, A History of Mindfulness, 2005.
The Chinese Tripitaka also contains two parallels to the Satipaṭṭhāna sutta; Madhyama Agama (MĀ) No. 98 (belonging to the Sarvāstivāda) and the Ekottara Agama 12.1, Ekāyana Sūtra (possibly from the Mahāsaṅghika school).Sujato (2012), pp. 278, 288–289. Their presentation of the satipaṭṭhāna formula has some significant differences with the Theravada version. For example, MĀ 98 lists the four jhanas and the 'perception of light' under mindfulness of the body as well as listing six elements instead of four. However they generally share the same structure and several basic practices.Sujato (2012), p. 280.
In his history of satipaṭṭhāna, Bhante Sujato writes that:
In the early teachings satipaṭṭhāna was primarily associated not with vipassanā but with samatha. Since for the Suttas, samatha and vipassanā cannot be divided, a few passages show how this samatha practice evolves into vipassanā. In later literature the vipassanā element grew to predominate, almost entirely usurping the place of samatha in satipaṭṭhāna.Sujato (2012), p. 133.
Tse-fu Kuan agrees, noting that "the tendency to dissociate satipaṭṭhāna from samatha is apparently a rather late development." According to Sujato, various canonical texts which show sectarian Theravada elements consistently depict satipaṭṭhāna as more closely aligned with vipassanā practice. However, in the canonical Abhidhamma, satipaṭṭhāna is still said to be associated with jhana as well.Sujato (2012), pp. 320–321 For example, according to Kuan, the Vibhanga "says that when a monk attains the first jhāna and contemplates the body (feelings, etc.) as a body (feelings, etc.), at that time sati, anussati, etc. are called 'satipaṭṭhāna.'" Meanwhile, the canonical Abhidharma texts of the Sarvāstivāda tradition consistently interpreted the smṛtyupasthānas as being a practice that was associated with samadhi and dhyana.Sujato (2012), pp. 320–326 This can be seen in the Mahāvibhāṣa Śāstra, which contains a section on how to practice the smṛtyupasthānas in the context of the four dhyanas and the formless attainments.
In the later texts of the Theravada tradition, like the Visuddhimagga, the focus on vipassanā is taken even further. Some of these works claim that one may reach awakening by practicing dry insight meditation (vipassanā without jhana) based on satipaṭṭhāna. Through this practice, one is said to be able to reach a "transcendental jhana" which lasts for one mind moment prior to realization. According to Sujato this is a "grave distortion of the suttas".Sujato (2012), p. 332
The same kind of trend can be seen in some later, post-canonical Sarvāstivāda Abhidharma works, such as the Abhidharmasāra of Dharmaśrī. This text, unlike the canonical Sarvāstivāda Abhidharma, treats the four smṛtyupasthānas as mainly vipassanā practices. This presentation influenced later works like the Abhidharmakośa (4th century CE), which "defines satipaṭṭhāna not as ‘mindfulness’, but as ‘understanding’ ( paññā)." However, this practice is only undertaken after having practiced samādhi based on ānāpānasati or contemplation of the body and so is not equivalent to the dry insight approach of the later Theravada. Sujato (2012), pp. 341–345.
Various scholars have attempted to use the numerous early sources to trace an "ur-text" i.e. the original satipaṭṭhāna formula or the earliest sutta. Bronkhorst (1985) argues that the earliest form of the satipaṭṭhāna sutta only contained the observation of the impure body parts under mindfulness of the body, and that mindfulness of dhammas was originally just the observation of the seven awakening factors. Sujato's reconstruction similarly only retains the contemplation of the impure under mindfulness of the body, while including only the five hindrances and the seven awakening factors under mindfulness of dhammas. According to Analayo, mindfulness of breathing was probably absent from the original scheme, noting that one can easily contemplate the body's decay taking an external object, that is, someone else's body, but not be externally mindfull of the breath, that is, someone else's breath.
| Body (kaya) | Impure body parts | Parts of the body | Parts of the body, 6 elements | 4 postures, Sampajanna, Ānāpānasati, Parts of the body |4 elements, Food, Space (5th element), Oozing orifices, Maranasati | Ānāpānasati, 4 postures, Sampajanna, Parts of the body, 4 elements, Maranasati | 4 postures, Sampajanna, Cutting off thought, Suppressing thought, Ānāpānasati, 4 jhāna similes, Perception of light, Basis of reviewing, Parts of the body, 6 elements, Maranasati | Parts of the body, 4 elements, Oozing orifices, Maranasati | 4 Postures, Comprehension, Ānāpānasati, 4 elements, Body parts, Maranasati |
| Feelings (vedana) | Happy/pain/neutral, Carnal/spiritual | Happy/pain/neutral, Bodily/Mental, Carnal/spiritual, Sensual/Non–sensual | Happy/pain/neutral, Carnal/spiritual | Happy/pain/neutral, Carnal/spiritual | Happy/pain/neutral, Bodily/Mental, Carnal/spiritual, Sensual/Non–sensual | Happy/pain/neutral, Carnal/spiritual, No mixed feelings | N/A (the source only mentions that one practices mindfulness of feelings without elaborating) | |
| Mind (Citta) | Greedy (or not), Angry, Deluded, Contracted, Exalted, Surpassed, Samādhi, Released | Greedy, Angry, Deluded, Contracted, Slothful, Small, Distracted, Quiet, Samādhi, Developed, Released | Greedy, Angry, Deluded, Contracted, Exalted, Surpassed, Samādhi, Released | Greedy, Angry, Deluded, Contracted, Exalted, Surpassed, Samādhi, Released | Greedy, Angry, Deluded, Defiled, Contracted, Small, Lower, Developed, Samādhi, Released | Greedy, Angry, Deluded, Affection, Attained, Confused, Contracted, Universal, Exalted, Surpassed, Samādhi, Released | N/A | |
| Dhamma | Five hindrances, Factors of Enlightenment | Five hindrances, Factors of Enlightenment | Five hindrances, 6 Ayatana, Factors of Enlightenment | Five hindrances, 6 Ayatana, Factors of Enlightenment, Four Noble Truths | Five hindrances, Skandha, 6 Ayatana, Factors of Enlightenment, Four Noble Truths | Five hindrances, 6 Ayatana, Factors of Enlightenment | Five hindrances, Factors of Enlightenment, 4 jhānas | N/A |
The place of satipaṭṭhāna in the gradual training is thus outlined by Sujato as follows:
Johannes Bronkhorst has argued that in the early texts there are two kinds of mindfulness, the preliminary stage of "mindfulness in daily life" (often called clear comprehension) and the practice of mindfulness meditation proper (the actual practice of satipaṭṭhāna as a formal meditation). According to Sujato, these two forms of mindfulness are so closely connected that they gradually came to be subsumed under the heading of satipaṭṭhāna.Sujato (2012), p. 188
In the oldest texts of Buddhism, dhyāna (Sanskrit) or jhāna (Pali) is the training of the mind, commonly translated as meditation, to withdraw the mind from the automatic responses to sense-impressions, and leading to a "state of perfect Upekkha and awareness ( upekkhā-sati-parisuddhi)." Dhyāna may have been the core practice of pre-sectarian Buddhism, in combination with several related practices which together lead to perfected mindfulness and detachment, and are fully realized with the practice of dhyana. In the later commentarial tradition, which has survived in present-day Theravada, dhyāna is equated with "concentration," a state of one-pointed absorption in which there is a diminished awareness of the surroundings. Since the 1980s, scholars and practitioners have started to question this equation, arguing for a more comprehensive and integrated understanding and approach, based on the oldest descriptions of dhyāna in the Sutra.
According to Anālayo, writing from a more traditional perspective, "several discourses testify to the important role of satipaṭṭhāna as a basis for the development of absorption" (jhana). This includes suttas like the Dantabhūmi Sutta and the Cūḷavedalla Sutta (which speaks of satipaṭṭhāna as the “cause” of samādhi, samādhinimitta). Anālayo also writes that satipaṭṭhāna is not purely a concentration ( samādhi) exercise, noting that sati "represents an enhancement of the recollective function," in which the breadth of attention is expanded. During absorption, "sati becomes mainly presence of the mind," but in a more focused way.
Anālayo cites SN 47.10 in which the Buddha states that if one is distracted and sluggish while practicing satipaṭṭhāna, one should switch one's meditation towards a calm ( samatha) meditation, in order to cultivate joy and serenity. Once the mind has been calmed, one can then return to satipaṭṭhāna. Anālayo argues that the distinction that is made in this sutta between “directed” and “undirected” forms of meditation suggest that satipaṭṭhāna is not the same as samatha meditation. However, the sutta also shows that they are closely interrelated and mutually supporting.
Thanissaro Bhikkhu, citing various early sources (SN 47:40, MN 118, AN 4:94, AN 4:170, Dhp 372 etc.), similarly states that "developing the frames of reference satipaṭṭhāna is a precondition for jhana" and that "the proper development of the frames of reference necessarily incorporates, in and of itself, the practice of jhana."Thanissaro Bhikkhu (Geoffrey DeGraff). The Wings to Awakening, An Anthology from the Pali Canon, Seventh Edition (2013), pp. 73–74.
Rupert Gethin translates (from the Pali) the basic exposition of these four practices (which he calls the "basic formula") that is shared by numerous early Buddhist sources as follows:
According to Grzegorz Polak, the four upassanā have been misunderstood by the developing Buddhist tradition, including Theravada, to refer to four different foundations. According to Polak, the four upassanā do not refer to four different foundations of which one should be aware, but are an alternate description of the jhanas, describing how the samskharas are tranquilized:
According to U Sīlānanda, first one should memorize the 32 parts of the body by reciting them, then one learns the color, shape and location of each part. After achieving mastery in this, one is ready to contemplate the unattractiveness of each part in meditation.U Sīlānanda (2012), pp. 56–62. Bhikkhu Bodhi notes that this practice is done "using visualization as an aid."Bodhi, Bhikkhu (2010). The Noble Eightfold Path: The Way to the End of Suffering. p. 88. Buddhist Publication Society. This practice is described with a common simile in the early discourses: one is mindful of each body part in the same way one is mindful when looking through various kinds of beans (or grains) in a bag (i.e. in a detached way). This indicates that the goal is not to become disgusted with the body but to see it in a detached manner. Bhante Gunaratana similarly notes that this practice "opens the mind to accepting our body as it is right now, without our usual emotional reactions. It helps us overcome pride and self-hatred and regard our body with the balanced mind of equanimity."Gunaratana, Bhante Henepola (2012) The Four Foundations of Mindfulness in Plain English, pp. 57–58. Similarly, Thanissaro Bhikkhu argues that this practice, far from creating a negative self-image, allows us to develop a healthy understanding of the reality that all bodies are equal (and thus none is superior or inferior in terms of beauty, since such a concept is ultimately relative to one's frame of reference).Thanissaro Bhikkhu (Geoffrey DeGraff). The Wings to Awakening, An Anthology from the Pali Canon, Seventh Edition (2013), p. 80.
The various early sources all indicate that one should contemplate how one's own body is of the same nature as the corpse. The Ekottarika-āgama version states that one is to contemplate how "my body will not escape from this calamity", "I will not escape from this condition. My body will also be destroyed," and "this body is impermanent, of a nature to fall apart." This practice allows one to gain insight into our own impermanence, and therefore also leads to letting go. In numerous early sources, contemplating the inevitability of death is also said to lead to increased motivation to practice the path.Anālayo (2013), pp. 109–110.
In most early sources, feelings are also distinguished between those which are sensual or worldly () and those that are not sensual or spiritual in nature.Anālayo (2006), p. 20. This introduces an ethical distinction between feelings that can lead to the arising of defilements and those that lead in the opposite direction."Anālayo (2013), p. 122. Thus, while pleasant feelings associated with sense pleasures lead to unwholesome tendencies, pleasant feelings associated with mental concentration lead towards wholesome states. Meanwhile, a worldly painful feeling might lead to the arising of unwholesome mental states, but it need not do so if one is mindfully aware of it without reacting. Furthermore, certain painful feelings, like those caused by the sadness of knowing one has not yet reached liberation, are considered spiritual unpleasant feelings and can motivate one to practice more. As such, they are commendable.Anālayo (2013), pp. 127–129.
The Madhyama-āgama version of the Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta also adds the additional categories of bodily and mental feelings, which refers to feelings that arise either from physical contact or from the mind (a distinction which does appear in other early discourses like the Salla-sutta SN 36.6 and its parallels).Anālayo (2013), pp. 119–120. Furthermore, according to Sujato, the Ānāpānasati Sutta section on vedanā also adds "rapture" and "mental activities" ( cittasankhāra, feeling and perception), which "seems to broaden the scope of feelings here as far as ‘emotions’, ‘moods’." Gunaratana similarly states that vedanā "includes both physical sensations and mental emotions."Gunaratana, Bhante Henepola (2012) The Four Foundations of Mindfulness in Plain English, pp. 81–82.
Furthermore, Anālayo argues that "the central role that feelings have in this respect is particularly evident in the context of the dependent arising ( paṭiccasamuppāda) of dukkha, where feeling forms the crucial link that can trigger the arising of craving." The fact that dependent origination can be contemplated through mindfulness of feelings is supported by SĀ 290.Anālayo (2013), pp. 123–127. The early discourses also state that practicing mindfulness of feeling can be a way of dealing with physical pain and disease.Anālayo (2013), p. 133.
Bhikkhu Bodhi notes that feelings arise due to sense contact ( phassa) and thus another way of analyzing feeling is into six types depending on the six sense bases: eye, nose, tongue, ear, body, and mind.Bodhi, Bhikkhu (2010). The Noble Eightfold Path: The Way to the End of Suffering. p. 90. Buddhist Publication Society.
Reflecting on the absence of unwholesome states is also important, as it allows one to rejoice in this positive state and become inspired by it. It also encourages one to protect this mental state, as can be seen in the simile of the bronze dish found in the Anaṅgaṇa-sutta (MN 5) and its parallels such as EĀ 25.6.Anālayo (2013), pp. 159–162. In this simile, a person who buys a bronze dish but takes no care to clean it from time to time is compared to someone who is unaware of having a mind free of unwholesome states. In this case, the dish (mind) will eventually get dirty. In the other hand, someone who has reached some degree of purity and is mindful of this is more likely to protect and maintain this mental state.
Anālayo writes that this way of contemplating the mind is a middle path that avoids two extremes:
one extreme is seeing only what is bad within oneself and consequently getting frustrated, succumbing to feelings of inadequacy. As a result of this, inspiration can get lost and one no longer engages fully in the practice. The other extreme is pretending to oneself (and in front of others) that one is better than one really is, at the cost of ignoring one's own dark sides, those areas of the mind that are in need of purification. Such ignoring allows those dark sides to gather strength until they are able to overwhelm the mind completely. Steering a balanced middle path between these two extremes becomes possible through the simple but effective element of honest recognition, introduced through mindfulness of the present condition of one's mind, which sees both one's shortcomings and one's virtues equally well.Anālayo (2013), pp. 161–162.This mindfulness is also extended into being aware of the level of mindfulness (or distraction) and concentration present in the mind (from contraction or a lesser mind to higher states such as samadhi and liberation). Anālayo states that the basic task here is "recognizing the degree to which one's practice has developed and realizing if more can be done."
Therefore, the terms such as a "small", "lower", "contracted" or "distracted" mind indicate a mind which lacks development in the qualities of mindfulness and samadhi. Other terms such as the "developed," "exalted" and "liberated" mind are referring to a mind that has achieved some level of samadhi and mindfulness (and in some cases, has been at least temporarily liberated from the hindrances through meditation).Anālayo (2013), p. 162. Sujato states that the terms associated with higher states of mind refer to the jhanas (he cites MN 54.22–24, MN 53.20–22 as support).Sujato (2012), A Swift Pair of Messengers, p. 44. INWARD PATH, Penang – Malaysia. Anālayo further notes that this element of contemplation of the mind shows that in early Buddhism "enquiring if one has reached some degree of attainment is considered an integral part of knowing the nature of one's own mental condition."Anālayo (2013), p. 145.
In the early discourses (SĀ 1246 and AN 3.100), the gradual process of removing unwholesome thoughts and cultivating wholesome mental states is compared to the gradual refining of gold ore which is initially covered over with rock, sand and fine dust (which represent the various gross and subtle aspects of mental defilement).Anālayo (2013), pp. 155–156.
Sujato argues that dhammā here refers to a "distinctive and more profound aspect of meditation: the understanding of the causal principles underlying the development of samādhi."Sujato (2012), p. 192. According to Anālayo, this satipaṭṭhāna focuses on phenomena which lead to awakening when cultivated and therefore, it is oriented.Gyori 1996, p. 24Anālayo 2006 p. 183, nn. 2, 3 Anālayo states that the "main thrust" of the fourth satipaṭṭhāna is the path to awakening and therefore, "contemplation of dharmas is somewhat like a shorthand description of the path." He further adds that "the task of mindfulness in the context of contemplation of dharmas would thus be to supervise the mind on the path to awakening, ensuring that the hindrances are overcome and the awakening factors are well established."Anālayo (2013), p. 176.
The Satipaṭṭhāna sutta indicates that one is to be mindful of the presence or absence of each of the five hindrances (sense desire, ill will, sloth-and-torpor, restlessness-and-worry and doubt). The sutta and the MA parallel also state that one should know how a hindrance arises, how it can be removed and how it can be prevented from arising.Anālayo (2013), p.177. The fact that mindfulness of the hindrances is also connected to remembering the instructions on how to remove and prevent the hindrances (not just watch it mindfully) is supported by other early discourses like the Gopakamoggallāna-sutta and its parallels (like MĀ 145).Anālayo (2013), pp. 181–182. Anālayo thus sees this practice as twofold: the receptive mode of just being aware of the hindrances and the more active mode of understanding how the hindrance arises and how it can be abandoned through a skillful deployment of right effort.Anālayo (2013), pp. 182–183.
According to U Sīlānanda, various hindrances can arise from inappropriate attention/reflection ( ayoniso manasikāra) and that proper or wise attention ( yoniso manasikāra) can prevent their arising. Another way to prevent their arising is simply to be mindful of the hindrances.U Sīlānanda (2012), pp. 90–103. Various early discourses like SĀ 715 provide specific instructions on how to weaken and counter the hindrances. Desire is said to be countered with the contemplation of unattractiveness, ill will is countered with loving-kindness, sloth-torpor is countered with energetic thoughts or perceiving light (or being in a well lit place), restlessness-worry is countered with thoughts that bring calmness and doubt can be countered by contemplating dependent origination or contemplating what is wholesome and what is unwholesome.Anālayo (2013), pp. 183–184 Suttas like the Saṅgārava-sutta mention that one benefit of removing the hindrances is an increased ability to learn and to remember what one has learned. The suttas also state that being mindful of the absence of the hindrances leads to joy, an important element of meditation.Anālayo (2013), pp. 189–194.
Early sources such as SĀ 729 and SN 46.27 state that one cultivates these awakening factors "supported by seclusion, supported by dispassion, and supported by cessation, culminating in letting go." This indicates that a successful cultivation of these factors leads to awakening if they each one is cultivated while being supported by three elements: seclusion from unwholesome actions, dispassion as the fading away of craving, and the gradual cessation of dukkha.Anālayo (2013), pp. 195–215, 219–220.
The awakening factors are positive qualities associated with wisdom that stand in opposition to the hindrances (associated with darkness and lack of wisdom, see SN 46.40 and SĀ 706).Anālayo (2013), p. 200. The Aggi-sutta and its parallel at SĀ 714 indicate that particular awakening factors (investigation of dhammas, energy, joy) can be used as antidotes to sluggishness while other factors (tranquillity, concentration, equanimity) are antidotes for agitation. This does not work the other way around, that is to say, awakening factors that are useful against agitation are not useful to cultivate when one is sluggish and vice versa.Anālayo (2013), pp. 200–205 The awakening factor of mindfulness meanwhile is useful in all circumstances. Indeed, according to Kaṭukurunde Ñāṇananda, "mindfulness stands in the middle and orders the other faculties, here too it comes to the forefront and marshals those factors that are behind it."Ñāṇananda, Bhikkhu K (2016). Seeing Through – A Guide to Insight Meditation, p. 4. Kaṭukurunde Ñānananda Sadaham Senasun Bhāraya, Sri Lanka.
Furthermore, the hindrance of doubt is also countered by the factor of investigation.Anālayo (2013), pp. 205–206 When all hindrances are absent, one is then able to cultivate all seven factors at once. SĀ 718 and SN 46.4 indicate that mastering the awakening factors requires learning how to make use of each one of them in different circumstances. These suttas illustrate this with the simile of a king that dresses in various clothes throughout the day according to his needs.Anālayo (2013), p. 205.
Various discourses including SĀ 715 and SN 46.51 discuss how the seven awakening factors are to be nourished and developed.Anālayo (2013), pp. 205–209 For example, mindfulness is nourished by the four satipaṭṭhānas, investigation is nourished by distinguishing wholesome things from unwholesome things, and energy is nourished through the four right efforts.
Furthermore, according to the Anāpānasati-sutta and its Saṃyukta-āgama parallel, the sequence in which the factors are listed seems to correspond to how they unfold through practice. According to Analayo, "this sequence reflects an underlying progression in which the factor mentioned earlier supports the arising of the factor that comes next."Anālayo (2013), p. 215 However, this progression is not a strict one. Kaṭukurunde Ñāṇananda states that "it does not mean that one has to develop the first category first and then after a time the next category and so on. But still there is a certain order in the development – an ascending order, one may say."Ñāṇananda, Bhikkhu K (2016). Seeing Through – A Guide to Insight Meditation, p. 2. Kaṭukurunde Ñānananda Sadaham Senasun Bhāraya, Sri Lanka.
Anālayo and Sujato both note that these four meditation subjects provide a progressive refinement of contemplation from coarse elements (the body) to increasingly subtler and more refined subjects.Sujato (2012), p. 191.Anālayo (2006), p. 19. Likewise, Gethin writes that there is "a movement from clear awareness of the more immediately accessible realms of experience to an awareness of what the Nikayas see as subtler and deeper realms."Gethin (2001), p. 47.
However, Anālayo also argues that this pattern "does not prescribe the only possible way of practising satipaṭṭhāna," since this would "severely limit the range of one's practice." This is because, "a central characteristic of satipaṭṭhāna is awareness of phenomena as they are, and as they occur. Although such awareness will naturally proceed from the gross to the subtle, in actual practice it will quite probably vary from the sequence depicted in the discourse." Anālayo sees the four satipaṭṭhānas as flexible and mutually supportive practices. Therefore, according to Anālayo "the sequence in which they are practised may be altered in order to meet the needs of each individual meditator."Anālayo (2006), pp. 20–21. All four may even be combined into a single practice, as documented by the Ānāpānasati Sutta.Anālayo (2006), p. 21.
Thanissaro Bhikkhu argues that an element of mindfulness practice includes learning how to maximize skillful qualities and how to minimize unskillful qualities, which might require one to "manipulate and experiment" with different mental qualities and meditation methods. Therefore, Thanissaro argues that mindfulness meditation can also be an active process of learning various skillful ways of directing the mind by cultivating certain perceptions and ideas (such as asubha).Thanissaro Bhikkhu (Geoffrey DeGraff). The Wings to Awakening, An Anthology from the Pali Canon, Seventh Edition (2013), pp. 77–79. Thanissaro compares this process to how "one learns about eggs by trying to cook with them, gathering experience from one's successes and failures in attempting increasingly difficult dishes."Thanissaro Bhikkhu (Geoffrey DeGraff). The Wings to Awakening, An Anthology from the Pali Canon, Seventh Edition (2013), p. 77. Eventually, as one gains mastery of the mind, one is able to transcend even the need for skillful manipulation of mental qualities.Thanissaro Bhikkhu (Geoffrey DeGraff). The Wings to Awakening, An Anthology from the Pali Canon, Seventh Edition (2013), p. 79.
The definition of how one practices satipaṭṭhāna in the early texts uses the term anupassanā which refers to "sustained observation" of each subject of meditation.Sujato (2012), pp. 200–203 Anālayo defines this term which is derived from the verb “to see” ( passati) as meaning “to repeatedly look at”, that is, “to contemplate” or “to closely observe.”Anālayo (2006), p. 32 Furthermore, he interprets this as referring to "a particular way of meditation, an examination of the observed object from a particular viewpoint" which "emphasize how the object is to be perceived" (such as seeing the body as unattractive or impermanent for example). Thanissaro translates anupassanā as "remaining focused" and “keeping track,” which "denotes the element of concentration in the practice, as one tries to stay with one particular theme in the midst of the welter of experience."
All versions of the Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta also indicate that each satipaṭṭhāna is to be contemplated first "internally" ( ajjhatta), then "externally" ( bahiddhā), and finally both internally and externally.Anālayo (2006), pp. 94, 97–98.Anālayo (2013), pp. 12–15. This is generally understood as observing oneself and observing other persons, an interpretation which is supported by Abhidharma works (including the Vibhaṅga and the Dharmaskandha) as well as by several suttas (MN 104, DĀ 4, DĀ 18 and DN 18).Anālayo (2006), pp. 94, 98.Anālayo (2013), pp. 15–19. Others interpret this passage as referring to mental (internal) phenomena and to phenomena associated with the senses (external), which according to Anālayo, does have some support from the suttas.Anālayo (2006), pp. 100–101.
According to Gethin, the passage refers to observing ourselves and other persons: "the bhikkhu, then, first watches his own body, feelings, mind and dhammas, next those of others, and finally his own and those of others together."Gethin (2001), p. 53. One example which indicates how this is to be understood is the practice of death meditation, which can be done in a charnel ground by looking at dead bodies (external contemplation) and also by contemplating the death of one's own body (internal).Sujato (2012), pp. 204–206. According to Gethin, this practice leads to "the blurring of distinctions between self and other" which arises as one begins to understand the world as being made up of impermanent and insubstantial processes.Gethin (2001), p. 54. Anālayo concurs, stating that this contemplation can lead to the abandoning of the boundary between "I" and "other", "leading to a comprehensive vision of phenomena as such, independent of any sense of ownership."Anālayo (2006), p. 102.
Regarding the question of how one is supposed to observe the feelings and mental states of other people, Anālayo argues that one can cultivate this by "carefully observing their outer manifestations" since feelings and mental states do influence the facial expression, tone of voice, and physical posture. He cites suttas such as DN 28 as evidence that the early discourses hold that one may infer the mental state of others by watching their external manifestations.Anālayo (2006), p. 96. Anālayo also notes that balancing internal and external contemplation is important because it can prevent a one sided awareness focused on one domain (self-centredness or lack of introspection respectively). Balancing both fields of mindfulness can thus "achieve a skilful balance between introversion and extroversion."Anālayo (2006), p. 98.
Thanissaro Bhikkhu outlines how all the different elements of mindfulness meditation come together as follows:
“Mindful” (satima) literally means being able to remember or recollect. Here it means keeping one's task in mind. The task here is a dual one—remaining focused on one's frame of reference satipaṭṭhāna, and putting aside the distractions of greed and distress that would come from shifting one's frame of reference back to the world. In other words, one tries to stay with the phenomenology of immediate experience, without slipping back into the narratives and world views that make up one's sense of the world. In essence, this is a concentration practice, with the three qualities of ardency, alertness, and mindfulness devoted to attaining concentration. Mindfulness keeps the theme of the meditation in mind, alertness observes the theme as it is present to awareness, and also is aware of when the mind has slipped from its theme. Mindfulness then remembers where the mind should be focused, and ardency tries to return the mind to its proper theme—and to keep it there—as quickly and skillfully as possible. In this way, these three qualities help to seclude the mind from sensual preoccupations and unskillful mental qualities, thus bringing it to the first jhana.Thanissaro Bhikkhu (Geoffrey DeGraff). The Wings to Awakening, An Anthology from the Pali Canon, Seventh Edition (2013), pp. 75–76.
The term ātāpī is associated with the concept of tapas (ascetic power) and it is said to be related to heroic strength, effort or energy ( viriya) in the Nettipakarana. It is thus associated with skillful effort and wholesome desire or resolve. It is best understood as a "balanced but sustained application of energy" according to Anālayo.Anālayo (2006), pp. 37–38. Thanissaro Bhikkhu defines it as "the factor of effort or exertion...which contains an element of discernment in its ability to distinguish skillful from unskillful mental qualities." U Sīlānanda glosses ātāpī as "you must be energetic, put forth effort to be mindful."U Sīlānanda (2012), pp. 3–17.
The second quality, sampajāna, means to know something clearly or thoroughly so that one has "the ability to fully grasp or comprehend what is taking place".Anālayo (2006), pp. 39–40. This can refer to basic forms of knowing (such as being aware of one's posture) as well as more discriminative forms of understanding (such as comprehending the five hindrances).Anālayo (2006), pp. 40–41. According to Thanissaro, this "means being clearly aware of what is happening in the present."
According to Gethin, "having removed covetousness and aversion for the world" is associated with the abandoning of the five hindrances as well as with the attainment of the jhanas as can be seen in suttas like MN 125 which directly associate these elements of the path.Gethin (2001), pp. 48–51. According to U Sīlānanda, this passage refers to a temporary removal of the five hindrances as a preliminary for meditation." The Ekottarika-āgama version states that one practices satipaṭṭhāna while "removing evil thoughts and being free from worry and sorrow, one experiences joy in oneself."Anālayo (2013), p. 23. Anālayo also associates this element with the development of samādhi. This is supported by the Nettippakarana (Nett 82) as well as by various suttas which contain a variation of the auxiliary formula which explicitly mentions samadhi such as SN 47.4).Anālayo (2006), p. 67.
Anālayo also notes that the abandonment of covetousness and aversion is associated with the practice of restraint of the senses in the early discourses (such as in MN 39). This is a stage of practice prior to formal meditation, in which "the meditator guards the sense doors in order to prevent sense impressions from leading to desires and discontent."Anālayo (2006), p. 71. The goal in the initial stages of practice is to develop a sense of "inner equipoise within which desires and discontent are held at bay." Anālayo further notes that "although sense-restraint precedes proper meditation practice in the gradual path scheme, this does not imply that sense-restraint is completed at an exact point in time, only after which one moves on to formal practice. In actual practice the two overlap to a considerable degree."Anālayo (2006), p. 72. Likewise, Sujato associates this element with "the preliminary subduing" of the five hindrances through sense restraint to prepare the mind for mindfulness meditation.Sujato (2012), A Swift Pair of Messengers, p. 36. INWARD PATH, Penang – Malaysia.
Furthermore, Anālayo states that awareness of impermanence (which is an aspect of right view) also leads to insight into anatta and dukkha.Anālayo (2006), p. 103. Gethin notes that the practice of observing the arising and falling of phenomena is "particularly associated with the gaining of the insight that leads directly to the destruction of the , directly to awakening." He also notes how various other suttas state that the practice of the four satipaṭṭhānas are directly linked with the destruction of the asavas .Gethin (2001), p. 56.
According to Bhante Sujato, there is a particularly popular interpretation of mindfulness meditation in modern Theravāda which he calls the vipassanāvāda (the vipassanā-doctrine). According to Sujato, this widespread modernist view can be summarized as follows:
The Buddha taught two systems of meditation, samatha and vipassanā. Samatha was taught before the Buddha (so is not really Buddhist), it is dangerous (because one can easily get attached to the bliss), and it is unnecessary (because vipassanā alone can develop the access samādhi necessary to suppress the hindrances). Vipassanā is the true key to liberation taught by the Buddha. This method was pre-eminently taught in the Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta, the most important discourse taught by the Buddha on meditation and on practice in everyday life. The essence of this practice is the moment-to-moment awareness of the rise and fall of all mind-body phenomena. Thus satipaṭṭhāna and vipassanā are virtually synonyms.Tse-fu Kuan also writes that it is a "widely held opinion in Theravada Buddhism that serenity meditation is not essential for the realization of Nirvana".Kuan (2008), p. 9. Kuan cites Theravada authors such as Ven. Rahula, Ven. Silananda and Nyanaponika as figures who support some version of this view.Kuan (2008), pp. 142–143. In contrast to this, Kuan argues that "there is probably no explicit indication in the Canon that one can achieve liberation by the practice of sati alone without the attainment of the jhānas."
According to Kuan, this "bare insight" view arose due to "the tendency in the tradition to redefine “liberation by wisdom” ( paññāvimutti) as being liberated by insight alone without high meditative attainments, although “liberation by wisdom” originally did not mean so." That liberation by wisdom did not originally mean liberation without jhana has also been argued by Cousins and Richard Gombrich.Kuan (2008), pp. 140–141.
Anālayo writes that certain modern Theravada meditation teachers "emphasize the “dry insight” approach, dispensing with the formal development of mental calm."Anālayo (2006), p. 64. He writes that some teachers of this dry insight approach describe the practice of mindfulness as “attacking” its object or "plunging into it". He cites U Pandita who writes that satipaṭṭhāna practice means to “attack the object without hesitation ... with violence, speed or great force ... with excessive haste or hurry.” Analayo thinks this mistaken understanding of mindfulness "arose because of a misreading or misinterpretation of a particular term". This is related to the interpretation of the Abhidhamma term apilāpeti (plunging) in the Theravada commentaries. Analayo agrees with Gethin, who argues instead for a reading of apilapati (or abhilapati) which means "reminding".
Furthermore, even though the early discourses support the idea that one can attain stream entry without having developed the jhanas (mainly by listening to a discourse by the Buddha), Anālayo argues that "for satipaṭṭhāna to unfold its full potential of leading to non-returning or full awakening
Sujato notes that not all modern Theravāda meditation traditions accept this dichotomy of samatha and vipassanā. According to Sujato, the teachers of the Thai forest tradition instead emphasize how samatha and vipassanā are complementary factors which must be practiced together. This is closer to how these two aspects of meditation are understood in the early Buddhist texts.Sujato (2012), pp. 2, 137.
Similarly, Thanissaro Bhikkhu notes that:
Although satipaṭṭhāna practice is often said to be separate from the practice of jhāna, a number of suttas—such as MN 125 and AN 8:63—equate the successful completion of this first stage of with the attainment of the first level of jhāna. This point is confirmed by the many suttas—MN 118 among them—describing how the practice of satipaṭṭhāna brings to completion the factors for awakening, which coincide with the factors of jhāna. "Maha-satipatthana Sutta: The Great Frames of Reference" (DN 22)", translated from the Pali by Thanissaro Bhikkhu. Access to Insight (Legacy Edition), 30 November 2013,According to Buddhadasa, the aim of mindfulness is to stop the arising of disturbing thoughts and emotions, which arise from sense-contact.
According to the theory of Theravada Buddhism, in the period of 5000 years after the parinirvana of Buddha, we can still attain Sotāpanna or even Arhat through practicing Satipatthana, and Satipatthana is the only way out.
The Tibetan canon also contains a True Dharma Application of Mindfulness Sutra (Tohoku Catalogue # 287, dam chos dran pa nyer bzhag, saddharmasmṛtyupasthānasutra). This sutra is cited by various Tibetan Buddhist figures, such as Atisha (in his Open Basket of Jewels) and the Third Dzogchen Rinpoche (1759–1792).Apple, James B (2019). Jewels of the Middle Way: The Madhyamaka Legacy of Atisa and His Early Tibetan Followers, pp. 80–81. Simon and Schuster.Dzogchen Rinpoche (2008) Great Perfection: Outer and Inner Preliminaries. Shambhala Publications It is also cited as a sutra of the first turning by Khedrup Je (1385–1438 CE).Wayman, Alex (1993). Introduction to Buddhist Tantric Systems: Translated from Mkhas Grub Rje's Rgyud Sde Spyihi Rnam Par Gzag Pargyas Par Brjod with Original Text and Annotation. p. 45.
This sutra is a large text that dates from between the second and fourth centuries CE. It survives in Tibetan, Chinese and Sanskrit manuscripts.Stuart, Daniel Malinowski (2012) A Less Traveled Path: Meditation and Textual Practice in the Saddharmasmrtyupasthana(sutra) pp. 25–27. It is a complex and heterogeneous Mulasarvastivada text with various topics, such as long descriptions of the various realms in Buddhist cosmology, discussions of karma theory, meditation and ethics.Stuart, Daniel Malinowski (2012) A Less Traveled Path: Meditation and Textual Practice in the Saddharmasmrtyupasthana(sutra) pp. 29–31. The earliest layer of the text, which can be found in chapter two, contains the core meditation teachings of the text, which include an extensive exposition of Skandha meditation, meditations on feeling ( vedana), meditations on the and ayatanas, meditation on the mind and impermanence, and other meditation topics organized into a structure of ten levels ( bhumi).Stuart, Daniel Malinowski (2012) A Less Traveled Path: Meditation and Textual Practice in the Saddharmasmrtyupasthana(sutra) pp. 46, 70–75.
According to Jigme Lingpa's (1730–1798) Treasury of Precious Qualities, the four applications of mindfulness are emphasized during the path of accumulation and in Mahayana are practiced with a focus on emptiness:
"If one practices according to the Hinayana, one meditates on the impurity of the body, on the feelings of sufferings, on the impermanence of consciousness and on the fact that mental objects are "ownerless" (there is no self to which they belong). If one practices according to the Mahayana, during the meditation session one meditates on the same things as being spacelike, beyond all conceptual constructs. In the post-meditation period one considers them as illusory and dreamlike."Longchen Yeshe Dorje, Jigme Lingpa (2010). Treasury of Precious Qualities: Book One, p. 391. Shambhala Publications.The general presentation of this practice in the Indo-Tibetan Buddhist tradition focuses on cultivating śamatha first, and then practicing vipaśyanā. Examples of contemporary figures in Tibetan Buddhism that have taught this practice include Chogyam Trungpa who often taught these practices in the United States and Dzogchen Ponlop Rinpoche, a contemporary Tibetan lama.See for example, Chögyam Trungpa (1991) The Heart of the Buddha: Entering the Tibetan Buddhist Path. Shambhala PublicationsDzogchen Ponlop. The Four Foundations Of Mindfulness, Excerpted from a teaching in Vermont, 1996. Originally published in Bodhi Magazine, Issue 3. They have also been taught by the 14th Dalai Lama and students of his like Alexander Berzin and Thubten Chodron.
The four applications of mindfulness are also discussed by Nyingma scholars like as Rong-zom-pa (eleventh century), Longchenpa (1308–1364), and Ju Mipham (1846–1912).Dorji Wangchuk, “The Diachronic and Synchronic Relationship between Philosophical Theory and Spiritual Praxis in Buddhism: With Special Reference to the Case of the Four Applications of Mindfulness (smṛtyupasthāna: dran pa nye bar gzhag pa) in Vajrayāna.” In Buddhist Meditative Praxis: Traditional Teachings and Modern Applications, edited by K.L. Dhammajoti. Hong Kong: Centre of Buddhist Studies, University of Hong Kong, 2015, pp. 177–201. These authors describe specifically Vajrayana modes of the four smṛtyupasthānas, which have been adapted to the Vajrayana philosophy.
These four "mantric" smṛtyupasthānas described by Mipham are summarized by Dorji Wangchuk as follows:
(1) Contemplating ( blo bzhag pa) the physical bodies of oneself and others as being characterized by primordial or intrinsic purity ( dag pa), on the one hand, and by emptiness ( stong pa nyid), freedom from manifoldness ( spros bral), great homogeneity ( mnyam pa chen po), and integrality ( zung du ’jug pa), on the other, is called kāyasmṛtyupasthāna.
(2) Transforming “conceptual constructions whose occurrence one feels/senses (or is aware of)” ( byung tshor gyi rtog pa) into gnosis characterized by great bliss ( bde ba chen po’i ye shes) is called vedanāsmṛtyupasthāna.
(3) Channelling or containing/constraining ( sdom pa) all kinds of manifoldness associated with mind and mental factors into/in/to the innate sphere of the luminous nature of the mind is called cittasmṛtyupasthāna.
(4) Conducting oneself in a way (or with an attitude) that all saṃsāric and nirvāṇic, universal and particular phenomena are pure and equal and hence beyond adoption or rejection, is dharmasmṛtyupasthāna.
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