Product Code Database
The Sanusi order or Sanusiyyah () are a Islam political-religious Sufi order ( tariqa) in Libya and North Africa founded in Mecca in 1837 by Muhammad ibn Ali al-Sanusi.
During World War I the Senusi order fought against both Italy and British Empire. During World War II, the order provided support to the British Eighth Army in North Africa against Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy forces. The founder's grandson became King Idris I of Libya in 1951. The 1969 Libyan revolution led by Muammar Gaddafi overthrew him, ending the Libyan monarchy. The movement remained active despite persecution by Gaddafi's government, and its cultural legacy continues to this day in Libya, centered on Cyrenaica.
In addition to Islamic sciences, Al-Sanusi learned science and chivalry in his upbringing. He studied at the University of al-Qarawiyyin in Fez, then traveled in the Sahara, preaching a purifying reform of the faith in Tunisia and Tripoli, gaining many adherents, and then moved to Cairo to study at Al-Azhar University in 1824.
Al-Sanusi was critical of the government of Muhammad Ali of Egypt. The pious scholar was forceful in his criticism of the Egyptian Ulama. Not surprisingly, he was opposed by the Ulama. He left Egypt for Mecca, where he spent 15 years as a student and teacher until 1843.
Al-Sanusi went to Mecca, where he joined Ahmad ibn Idris al-Qadiri, the head of the Qadiriyya, a renowned religious fraternity. Al-Sanusi furthermore acquired several of his ideas while under his education from 1825 to 1827/28. On the death of ibn Idris, Al-Sanusi became head of one of the two branches into which the Qadiriyya divided, and in 1835 he founded his first monastery or Zawiya, at Abu Qubays near Mecca. After being forced to leave by the Wahhabism,Moughrabi, Fouad. "Genocide in Libya: Shar, a Hidden Colonial History." Arab Studies Quarterly, vol. 43, no. 4, fall 2021, pp. 371+. Gale Academic OneFile, link.gale.com/apps/doc/A697861284/AONE?u=tall85761&sid=googleScholar&xid=8b3f077a he returned to Libya in 1843 where in the mountains near Sidi Rafaa' (Bayda) he built the Zawiya Bayda "White Monastery". There he was supported by the local tribes and the Wadai Empire and his connections extended across the Maghreb.
The Sanusi order did not tolerate fanaticism and forbade the use of as well as voluntary poverty. Lodge members were to eat and dress within the limits of fiqh and, instead of depending on charity, were required to earn their living through work.
had shown no interest in the ecstatic practices of the Sufis that were gaining adherents in the towns, but they were attracted in great numbers to the Sanusi order. The relative austerity of the Sanusi message was particularly suited to the character of the Cyrenaican Bedouins.
In 1855, the Sanusi order moved farther from direct Ottoman surveillance to Jaghbub, a small oasis some 30 miles northwest of Siwa Oasis. He died in 1860, leaving two sons, Mohammed Sherif (1844–95) and Mohammed al-Mahdi, who succeeded him.
The successors to the sultan of Abu Qubays, Sultans Ali (1858–74) and Yusef (1874–98), continued to support the Sanusi. Under al-Mahdi, the zawiyas of the order extended to Fez, Damascus, Istanbul, and India. In the Hejaz, members of the order were numerous. In most of these countries, the Sanusi wielded no more political power than other Muslim fraternities, but in the eastern Sahara and central Sudan, things were different. Muhammed al-Mahdi had the authority of a sovereign in a vast but almost empty desert. The string of oases leading from Siwa Oasis to Kufra and Borkou were cultivated by the Sanusi order, and trade with Tripoli and Benghazi was encouraged.
Although named "al-Mahdi" by his father, Muhammad never claimed to be the actual Mahdi. However, he was regarded as such by some of his followers. When Muhammad Ahmad proclaimed himself the Mahdi in 1881, Muhammad Idris decided to have nothing to do with him. Although Muhammad Ahmed wrote twice asking him to become one of his four great caliphs, he received no reply.
In 1890, the Ansar forces of Muhammad Ahmad al-Mahdi advancing from Darfur were stopped on the frontier of the Wadai Empire, Sultan Yusuf proving firm in his adherence to the Senussi teachings.
Muhammed al-Mahdi's growing fame made the Ottoman regime uneasy and drew unwelcome attention. In most of Tripoli and Benghazi his authority was greater than that of the Ottoman governors. In 1889 the sheikh was visited at Jaghbub by the pasha of Benghazi accompanied by Ottoman troops. This event showed the sheik the possibility of danger and led him to move his headquarters to Jof in the oases of Kufra in 1894, a place sufficiently remote to secure him from a sudden attack.
The Sanusi order had Somalis contacts in Berbera and consistently tried to rally Somalis to join their movement alongside their rivals, the Mahdist State. Sultan Nur Ahmed Aman of the Habr Yunis, himself a learned sheikh, regularly received Sanusi emissaries and housed them. Sultan Nur would go on to play a critical role in the subsequent Somali Dervish Movement starting in 1899.Under the flag: and Somali coast stories by Walsh, Langton Prendergast. p. 259
By this time a new danger to Sanusi territories had arisen from the French colonial empire, who were advancing from the French Congo towards the western and southern borders of the Wadai Empire. The Senussi kept them from advancing north of Chad.
The Sanusi order, encouraged by the German Empire and Ottoman Empires, played a minor part in the World War I, during the Senussi campaign, utilising guerrilla warfare against the Italian colonization of Libya and the British in Egypt from November 1915 until February 1917, led by Sayyid Ahmed, and in the Sudan from March to December 1916, led by Ali Dinar, the Sultan of Darfur.Field Marshal Earl Wavell, The Palestine Campaigns 3rd Edition thirteenth Printing; Series: A Short History of the British Army 4th Edition by Major E.W. Sheppard (London: Constable & Co., 1968) pp. 35–6M.G.E. Bowman–Manifold, An Outline of the Egyptian and Palestine Campaigns, 1914 to 1918 2nd Edition (Chatham: The Institution of Royal Engineers, W. & J. Mackay & Co Ltd, 1923), p. 23. In 1916, the British sent an expeditionary force against them known as the Senussi Campaign led by Major General William Peyton. William Eliot Peyton Centre for First World War Studies. Accessed 19 January 2008. According to Wavell and McGuirk, Western Force was first led by General Wallace and later by General Hodgson.Wavell pp. 37–8.Russell McGuirk The Sanusi's Little War: The Amazing Story of a Forgotten Conflict in the Western Desert, 1915–1917 (London: Arabian Publishing, 2007) pp. 263–4.
Italy took Libya from the Ottomans in the Italo-Turkish War of 1911. In 1922, Italian Fascism leader Benito Mussolini launched his infamous Riconquista of Libya — the Roman Empire having done the original conquering 2000 years before. The Sanusi order led the resistance and Italians closed , arrested , and confiscated mosques and their land. The resistance was led by Omar al-Mukhtar who used his knowledge of desert warfare and guerrilla tactics to resist Italian colonization. After his death the Senussi resistance faded, and they were forced to renounce their land for compensation.Phillip Naylor, “North Africa, Revised Edition: A History from Antiquity to the Present”, University of Texas Press, p. 177. Overall, Libyans fought the Italians until 1943, with 250,000–300,000 of them dying in the process.John L. Wright, Libya, a Modern History, Johns Hopkins University Press, p. 42.
Idris established a tacit alliance with the British, which led to two agreements with the Italian rulers, one of which brought most of inland Cyrenaica under the de facto control of the Senussis. The resulting Accord of al-Rajma, consolidated through further negotiations with the Italians, earned Idris the title of Emir of Cyrenaica, albeit new tensions which compromised that delicate balance emerged shortly after.
Soon Cyrenaica became the stronghold of the Libyan and Sanusi resistance to the Italian rulers. In 1922, Idris went into exile in Egypt, as the Italian response to the Libyan resistance grew increasingly violent.
During the Second World War, Sanusi groups led by Idris formally allied themselves with the British Eighth Army in North Africa against the German and Italian forces. Ultimately, the Sanusi order proved decisive in the British defeat of both Italy and Germany in North Africa in 1943. The Libyans fought the Italians until 1943, with some 250,000 of them dying in the process.
As historian Ali Abdullah Ahmida remarked, the Sanusi order was able to transcend "ethnic and local tribal identification", and therefore had a unifying influence on the Libyans fighting the Italian occupiers. A well-known hero of the Libyan resistance and an ally of Idris, Omar Mukhtar, was a prominent member of the Sanusi order and a Sufi teacher whom the Italians executed in 1931.
After the end of the war in 1945, the Western powers pushed for Idris, still leader of the Sanusi order, to be the leader of a new unified Libya. When the country achieved independence under the aegis of the United Nations in 1951, Idris became its king, and Fatimah his Queen consort.
Although it was instrumental in his accession to power, according to the Islamic scholar Mohammed Ayoob, Idris used Islam "as a shield to counter pressures generated by the more progressive circles in North Africa, especially from Egypt."
Resistance towards Idris' rule began to build in 1965 due to a combination of factors: the discovery of oil in the region, government corruption and ineptness, and Arab nationalism.
In August 1969, Idris issued a letter of abdication designating his nephew Hassan as-Senussi as his successor. The letter was to be effective on September 2, but the coup preceded Idris' formal abdication. King Idris' nephew and Crown Prince Hasan as-Senussi, who had been designated Regent when Idris left Libya to seek medical treatment in 1969, became the successor to the leadership of the Sanusi order.
Many Libyans continue to regard Idris with great affection, referring to him as the "Sufi King". In May 2013, Idris and Omar Mukhtar were commemorated for their role as Sanusi leaders and key players in Libya's independence in a celebration of the 50th anniversary of the foundation of the African Union in Addis Ababa.
Ironically, Omar Mukhtar became one of Gaddafi's most inspiring figures, whose speeches he frequently quoted, and whose image he often exhibited in official occasions.
In 1984, Libya's distinguished Senussi University was closed by Gaddafi's order, although international scholars continued to visit the country until the beginning of the civil war to study the Sanusi history and legacy. In fact, evidence of the Sanusi presence and activism was recorded throughout the 1980s. Vocal anti-Gaddafi resistance emerged among the former Sanusi tribes in Cyrenaica in the 1990s, which Gaddafi suppressed with his troops.
In 1992, Crown Prince Hassan as-Senussi died. The leadership of the Sanusi order passed to his second son, Mohammed el Senussi, whom Hassan had appointed as his successor to the throne of Libya.
Stephen Schwarz, executive director of the Center for Islamic Pluralism, reflected on the "Sufi foundation" of Libya's revolution in his August 2011 piece for the Huffington Post. Schwarz observed that Libya continued to stand "as one of the distinguished centers of a Sufism opposed both to unquestioning acceptance of Islamic law and to scriptural absolutism, and dedicated to freedom and progress." He wrote: "With the fall of the dictatorship, it will now be necessary to analyze whether and how Libya's Sufi past can positively influence its future."
In August 2012, hardliner Salafi movement extremists attacked and destroyed the shrine of al-Shaab al-Dahmani, a Sufi saint, in Tripoli. The tombs of Sufi scholars were systematically targeted by extremists as well.
The sustained attacks were consistently denounced by Sufi scholars as well as by the League of Libyan Ulema, a group of leading Libyan religious scholars, calling the population to protect the religious and historical sites by force and urging the authorities to intervene in order to avoid further escalations of violence and new attacks by Salafi groups.
Developments since 1859
Muhammad al-Mahdi ibn Muhammad al-Sanusi (1845 – 30 May 1902) was fourteen when his father died, after which he was placed under the care of his father's friends Amran, Rifi, and others. At age 18, he left their care and moved to Fez to further his knowledge of the Qur'an and Sufism.Encyclopedia Islam
Leadership of Ahmed Sharif as-Senussi
In 1902, Muhammad Idris died and was succeeded by his nephew, Ahmed Sharif as-Senussi, but his adherents in the deserts bordering Egypt maintained for years that Muhammad was not dead. The new head of the Sanusi order maintained the friendly relations of his predecessors with Sultan Dud Murra of Wadai, governing the order as regent for his young cousin, Muhammad Idris II, the future King Idris of Libya, who signed the 1917 Treaty of Acroma that ceded control of Libya from the Kingdom of ItalyA. Del Boca, "Gli Italiani in Libia – Tripoli Bel Suol d'Amore" Mondadori 1993, pp. 334–341 and was later recognized by them as Emir of CyrenaicaA. Del Boca, "Gli Italiani in Libia – Tripoli Bel Suol d'Amore" Mondadori 1993, p. 415 on October 25, 1920.
Idris of Libya
From 1917 to his death, in 1933, Ahmed Sharif as-Senussi's leadership was mostly nominal. Idris of Libya, a grandson of Muhammad ibn Ali al-Sanusi, the Grand Senussi, replaced Ahmed as effective leader of the Order in 1917 and went on to play a key role as the Sanusi leader who brought the Libyan tribes together into a unified Libyan nation.
(2026). 9781579584535, Fitzroy Dearborn. ISBN 9781579584535 On September 1, 1969, a military coup led by Muammar Gaddafi marked the end of Idris' reign. The king was toppled while he was receiving medical treatment in Turkey. From there he fled to Greece and then Egypt, where he died in exile in 1983. Meanwhile, a republic was proclaimed, and Idris was sentenced to death in absentia in November 1971 by the Libyan People's Court.
Developments since 1969
Gaddafi banned the Sanusi order, forced the Senussi circles underground, and systematically persecuted prominent Sanusi figures, in an effort to remove Sufi symbols and to silence voices of the Sanusi tradition from Libya's public life.
The remaining Sanusi tribes were severely restricted in their actions by the revolutionary government, which also appointed a supervisor for their properties.
Legacy
The Sufi heritage and spirit remains prominent today, and its sentiment and symbols have inspired many during the 2011 Libyan revolution. The image of Omar Mukhtar and his popular quote "We win or we die" resonated in Tripoli and in the country as Libyans rose up to oust Gaddafi. In July 2011 The Globe and Mail contributor Graeme Smith reported that one of the anti-Gaddafi brigades took the name of "Omar Mukhtar Brigade".
List of leaders
See also
Sources
External links
|
|
