Product Code Database
Refrigerants are working fluid that carry heat from a cold environment to a warm environment while circulating between them. For example, the refrigerant in an air conditioner carries heat from a cool indoor environment to a hotter outdoor environment. Similarly, the refrigerant in a kitchen refrigerator carries heat from the inside the refrigerator out to the surrounding room. A wide range of fluids are used as refrigerants, with the specific choice depending on the temperature range needed and constraints related to the system involved.
Refrigerants are the basis of vapor compression refrigeration systems. The refrigerant is circulated in a loop between the cold and warm environments (see figure). In the low-temperature environment, the refrigerant absorbs heat at low pressure, causing it to evaporate. The gaseous refrigerant then enters a compressor, which raises its pressure and temperature. The pressurized refrigerant circulates through the warm environment, where it releases heat and condenses to liquid form. The high-pressure liquid is then depressurized and returned to the cold environment as a liquid-vapor mixture. (2026). 9781259822674, McGraw-Hill. ISBN 9781259822674 (2026). 9780470030370, John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 9780470030370
[[File:Air conditioning unit-en.svg|thumb|upright=2| A window air conditioner. The refrigerant circulates through the evaporator/cooling coil (blue), where it absorbs heat from the indoor air, making that air cooler. The refrigerant vapor then flows to the compressor, where an electric motor drives the vapor to higher pressure and temperature. The vapor releases heat and liquefies in the condenser (red). The condensed liquid then flows through an expansion valve, depressurizing and cooling. After expansion, it returns to the evaporator as a cold liquid-vapor mixture.]]
Refrigerants are also used in heat pump, which work like refrigeration systems. In the winter, a heat pump absorbs heat from the cold outdoor environment and releases it into the warm indoor environment. In summer, the direction of heat transfer is reversed.
Refrigerants include naturally occurring fluids, such as ammonia, carbon dioxide, propane, or isobutane, and synthetic fluids, such as chlorofluorocarbons, hydrochlorofluorocarbons, or hydrofluorocarbons. Many older synthetic refrigerants have been banned to protect the Earth's ozone layer or to limit climate change. Some refrigerants are flammable or toxic, making careful handling and disposal essential.
Refrigerants, while strongly associated with vapor compression systems, are used for many other purposes. These applications include propelling aerosols, polymer foam production, chemical feedstocks, fire suppression, and solvents.
Chillers are refrigeration systems that have a secondary loop which circulates a refrigerating liquid (as opposed to a refrigerant), with vapor compression refrigeration used to chill the secondary liquid. (2026). 9781523135080, American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE). ISBN 9781523135080
Absorption refrigeration systems operate by absorbing a gas, such as ammonia, into a liquid, such as water.
A refrigerant must achieve a boiling point below the desired temperature of the cold environment. Heat will then flow from the cold environment into the refrigerant, causing it to evaporate. The boiling point is lower if the refrigerant pressure is lower. For this reason, the refrigerant in the evaporator (on the cold side) will have a reduced pressure.Terry Welch (2026). 9781903287910, The Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers (CIBSE). ISBN 9781903287910 The evaporator pressure should be above atmospheric pressure to prevent air from leaking into it.
Similarly, the refrigerant must achieve a boiling point above the temperature of the warm environment, so that heat will flow out of the refrigerant as it condenses. Since boiling point rises with increasing pressure, the refrigerant in the condenser (on the warm side) will have an elevated pressure.
For most refrigeration systems, a critical point temperature well above the condenser temperature is desirable. When the critical point temperature is above the condenser temperature, the refrigerant can condense from the vapor to the liquid phase at nearly constant temperature; but if the critical point were below the condenser temperature, no phase change could occur. For fixed evaporator and condenser temperatures, increasing the critical point temperature farther above the condenser temperature raises the energy efficiency of a refrigeration cycle.
However, as the critical point temperature rises, the vapor density at the compressor inlet decreases. A lower density raises the volumetric flow rate of vapor needed for a given amount of cooling (in other words, the compressor must be larger to do the job). Thus, a trade-off between energy efficiency and volumetric efficiency underlies the selection of a refrigerant.
The refrigerant vapor's specific heat capacity also strongly affects performance. A lower specific heat capacity avoids liquid formation in the compressor, but too low a heat capacity can result in undesirably hot vapor at the compressor outlet. Optimization tends to favor refrigerant molecules with fewer atoms. A high latent heat of vaporization and a triple point well below the evaporator temperature are also desirable.
A few refrigerants, like carbon dioxide, may operate in warm environments that are above the critical point temperature. In these transcritical refrigeration cycles, the condenser must be replaced by a gas cooler operating over a wider temperature range.
Refrigerants are sometimes blended to achieve a balance of desired properties. Pure refrigerants vaporize at a constant temperature when pressure is held constant (as it is in an evaporator or condenser). In contrast, blended refrigerants vaporize across a small range of temperature. This phenomenon is called temperature glide.
For safety, an ideal refrigerant should be non-toxic and non-flammable. For environmental protection, the refrigerant should have no ozone depletion potential, and a very low global warming potential. Refrigerants that are not naturally present in the atmosphere should have a short atmospheric lifetime and should decay into environmentally benign by-products.Abas et al. (2018)
Refrigerants should be non-corrosive to the components in the system. To protect the compressor, the refrigerant should be miscible in the lubricant, and shaft seals compatible with the refrigerant must be available. For hermetically sealed systems, the refrigerant vapor may have contact with the Electric motor, and so it should have a high dielectric strength.
For safety, an ideal refrigerant should be non-toxic and non-flammable. For environmental protection, the refrigerant should have no ozone depletion potential, and a very low global warming potential. Refrigerants that are not naturally present in the atmosphere should have a short atmospheric lifetime and should decay into environmentally benign by-products.
The refrigerant should have a low cost. Legal regulations can also be a strong factor in the selection of refrigerants.
The selection of a refrigerant for a specific purpose involves trade-offs among the all factors mentioned. Often, no refrigerant is entirely ideal, and several different refrigerants will appear as reasonable options.American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) (2026). 9781947192904, American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers. ISBN 9781947192904
Many more inventions followed during the second half of the 19th century. In the 1860s, Thaddeus Lowe developed a carbon dioxide system. The 1870s saw the introduction of systems based on ammonia, sulfur dioxide, dimethyl ether, and methyl chloride. Several 19th century refrigerants continue in use to this day, but others have been discarded for safety or performance reasons. By start of the 20th century, ammonia was predominant in industrial systems.
Household use of vapor compression refrigerators and air conditioners emerged in the early 20th century, as small electric motors became available to drive the vapor compressor. These early systems used ammonia, isobutane, methyl chloride, propane, and sulfur dioxide. Each of these had drawbacks for household use, such as odor, toxicity, or flammability. (Despite their flammability, propane and isobutane had good safety records.)
The R- numbering system for refrigerants was developed by DuPont in the years that followed. The letter R is followed by a number that uniquely identifies the chemical structure of the refrigerant. The system has since become an international standard. Often, a more specific group of letters is used in place of R to denote the chemical family of the refrigerant. For example, R-12 may be called CFC-12 to indicate that it is a chlorofluorocarbon.
CFC and HCFC refrigerants were immensely successful, and they dominated the market for half a century. By 1987, R-12 was used in essentially all refrigerators and R-22 in nearly all air conditioners. Automotive systems relied on R-12, water chillers using centrifugal compressors favored R-11, and low-temperature commercial refrigeration used a blended refrigerant, R-502.
These discoveries led to the signing of the Montreal Protocol in 1987. This international agreement aimed to phase out CFCs and HCFCs to protect the ozone layer.
Under the Montreal Protocol, production of CFCs was scheduled to be banned in most countries by 1996. HCFCs were scheduled to phase out over a longer period because they have lower ozone depletion potentials (ODP) than CFCs. During this transition time, the adoption of HCFCs, such as R-22, was accelerated.
The search for alternatives to CFC and HCFC refrigerants, such as R-12 and R-22, began in the 1970s. By the time Montreal Protocol was signed, R-134a had been identified as a replacement for R-12 in automotive use and R-123 as a replacement for R-11 in large . R-134a is a hydrofluorocarbon or HFC, but R-123 was a hydrochlorofluorocarbon (HCFC) that would also eventually be phased out.
Governments made regulations to support the Montreal Protocol. In 1991, Germany enacted legislation to eliminate CFCs in cooling appliances, and CFCs were prohibited in new equipment starting in 1995.
US home air conditioners and industrial chillers moved toward HCFCs starting in the 1980s. Beginning on 14 November 1994, the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) restricted the sale, possession and use of refrigerants to only licensed technicians, per rules under the Clean Air Act. The US banned the production and import of CFCs on January 1, 1996. Stockpiled and reclaimed CFCs continued to be used while supplies were available.
Much later, governments began restricting HCFCs. For example, in 2000 the UK's Ozone Regulations came into force, banning ozone-depleting HCFC refrigerants such as R-22 in new systems. The regulations also banned the use of virgin R-22 as a "top-up" fluid for maintenance from 2010 and of recycled R-22 from 2015. In 2010, US EPA banned the use of R-22 (HCFC-22) in new equipment, much of which shifted to the HFC mixture, R-410A. All production and import of R-22 was banned on January 1, 2020.
The Montreal Protocol, which dealt with ozone depletion, did not aim to regulate the global warming impact of refrigerants. Even so, CFCs have much higher global warming potentials than the refrigerants that replaced them. As a result, the Montreal Protocol very significantly reduced global warming.
(R-600a) molecule]] European environmentalists were at the forefront of this effort. The environmental organization Greenpeace established a collaboration with Germany's Dortmund Institute and the German refrigerator manufacturer DKK Scharfenstein to develop a commercially viable domestic refrigerator based on hydrocarbons, rather than fluorocarbons. By 1993, the hydrocarbon-based "Greenfreeze" refrigerator was commercialized in Germany under the brand name Foron, and the technology subsequently spread to other countries.
By 1996, Greenfreeze accounted for 35% of Western European production; and, by 2001, hydrocarbon refrigeration covered 100% of German production. Greenfreeze systems use varying mixtures of isobutane (R-600a), propane (R-290), and other hydrocarbons.
In 2004, Greenpeace worked with a group of multinational corporations, including Coca-Cola, Unilever, and later PepsiCo, to create a coalition called "Refrigerants Naturally!". This organization promoted the use of natural refrigerants as alternatives to synthetic refrigerants. Four years later, Ben & Jerry's of Unilever and General Electric began to take steps to support production and use in the US.
Corporations that manufactured synthetic refrigerants resisted the move toward hydrocarbons, however, citing the flammability and explosive properties of hydrocarbons. This resistance extended to attempts to block the approval of hydrocarbon refrigerants by the US EPA. Companies using refrigeration systems, particularly Unilever and its Ben & Jerry's ice-cream subsidiary, helped to overcome the regulatory barriers to hydrocarbon refrigerants.
By 2010, about 1/3 of domestic refrigerators made globally used isobutane or an isobutane/propane blend. By 2010, Japan had converted almost all refrigeration from R-134a to isobutane. By 2022, isobutane was used in more than 70% of new EU domestic refrigerators and, by 2025, in more than 60% of new US domestic refrigerators.
Carbon dioxide also gained new attention during this time. Despite its high operating pressure, CO2 was seen as a viable refrigerant in automobiles, as well as stationary systems. By 2014, Coca-Cola, a member of Refrigerants Naturally!, had installed 1 million HFC-free refrigeration units, with as its refrigerant of choice.
Different HFCs were adopted for different purposes. In domestic refrigerators and automobiles, R-134a replaced the CFC, R-12. In low-pressure chillers, R-123 replaced R-11. In small air conditioners, the blended refrigerant R-410A ultimately replaced R-22, following initial consideration of R-407C. And in low-temperature commercial refrigeration, the blend R-404A replaced R-502.
this era, the atmospheric concentrations of HCFC's began to stabilize, while the concentrations of HFCs rose sharply (see figure).
The situation began to change in 1997, when HFCs and (FCs) were included in the Kyoto Protocol to the Framework Convention on Climate Change. The Kyoto Protocol was an agreement to cap emissions of certain greenhouse gases at a level 5% below 1990 emissions. These gases included HFCs.
In response, governments introduced new regulations. For example, in 2006, the EU adopted a regulation on fluorinated greenhouse gases (FCs and HFCs) to encourage to transition to natural refrigerants.
During the 2010s, new equipment increasingly used lower-GWP HFCs, hydrocarbons, and hydrofluoroolefins (HFO) as refrigerants. These refrigerants varied by sector of use, as described in contemporaneous press reports: R-600a (isobutane) for domestic refrigeration; R-32 and R-454B for stationary air conditioning; R-514A, R-1233zd(E), and R-1234ze(E) for chillers; and Difluoromethane, R-290 (propane), R-407A, and R-744 (CO2) for commercial refrigeration. These choices reflected a range of trade-offs between established approaches, flammability, and reduced GWP. Some of these selections had a lower, but still high, GWP and were seen as transitional.
From 2011, the European Union started to phase out refrigerants with a 100-year GWP above 150 in automotive air conditioning. The phase out included the refrigerant HFC-134a (R-134a), which has a 100-year GWP of 1530. In the same year, the US EPA decided in favor of the ozone- and climate-safe refrigerant HFO-1234yf (R-1234yf) for US-manufactured vehicles. These regulatory decisions aligned with the opinion of the auto industry, which in 2010 had recommended R-1234yf for automotive air conditioning.
The lower GWP of R-1234yf relative to R-134a is primarily due to its very short atmospheric lifetime12 days vs. 13.5 years. Both molecules contain carbon-fluorine bonds that absorb thermal radiation, but the carbon double bond in R-1234yf enables its rapid decomposition to trifluoroacetic acid.
The Kigali Amendment to the Montreal Protocol was adopted in 2016. This international agreement implemented a gradual reduction in the consumption and production of HFCs. In 2019, the UNEP published new voluntary guidelines for air conditions and refrigerators. At that time, researchers estimated that CFCs, HCFCs, and HFCs were responsible for about 10% of direct radiative forcing from all long-lived anthropogenic greenhouse gases.
The United States ratified the Kigali Amendment on October 31, 2022. The US Environmental Protection Agency has published phase-out schedules for HFCs, with restrictions on GWP by sector of use.
By the mid-2020s, EU and US regulations on HFCs had resulted in broad adoption of some low GWP refrigerants, including R-600a (isobutane) in domestic refrigeration and R-1234yf in automotive applications. By 2022, more than 70% of new EU household refrigerators used isobutane (R-600a), and by 2025 more than 60% of new US domestic refrigerators also used isobutane. In 2022, more than 98% of new US vehicles and 99% of new European vehicles used R-1234yf. In other sectors of use, the optimal choice of refrigerant was still evolving in the early 2020s.
Developing countries generally follow later phase-down timelines than developed countries under the Kigali Amendment. Among the most populous developing countries, China, Indonesia, Nigeria, and Brazil committed to reduce HFC consumption by 10% in 2029 and by 80% in 2045, while India aims for a 10% cut by 2032 and an 80–85% cut by 2047. Each country may proceed differently, however. For example, China had widely adopted isobutane refrigerators long before the Kigali amendment, and it has banned HFCs from new refrigerators starting in 2026.
| + ASHRAE Safety Group Classifications ! ! Lower toxicity ! Higher toxicity | ||
| Highly flammable | A3 | B3 |
| Flammable | A2 | B2 |
| Lower flammability | A2L | B2L |
| No flame propagation | A1 | B1 |
Non-toxic refrigerants (A class) are often used in open systems, where the refrigerant is expended rather than recovered. Such devices include fire extinguishers and fire suppressants using HCFCs or HFCs, gas duster with HFC-152a or hydrocarbon propellants, metered-dose Inhaler using HFC propellants, and lighters containing the A3 refrigerant isobutane (R-600a).
To mitigate the environmental hazards, strict regulations apply to refrigerant handling. In the United States, Section 608 of the Clean Air Act requires certification for anyone servicing or disposing of stationary equipment, while Section 609 applies to technicians working on motor vehicle air conditioning. Similarly, the UK requires qualification C&G 2079 for fluorinated and ozone-depleting gases and recognizes C&G 6187-2 for handling hydrocarbons and flammable refrigerants. US law also prohibits knowingly venting most synthetic refrigerants, although it permits discharge of certain natural refrigerants, including ammonia (R-717), carbon dioxide (R-744), isobutane (R-600a), propane (R-290), and the hydrocarbon blend HCR-188C (R-441A).
To minimize emissions, used refrigerants must be recovered during service or decommissioning. Refrigerant reclamationprocessing used refrigerant so that it meets purity specifications of new gasmust be carried out in the US by EPA-licensed reclaimers, with recovery handled by certified technicians.
| 0.169 |
| 0.165 |
| 0.167 |
| 0.162 |
| 0.173 |
| 0.160 |
| 0.285 |
| 0.172 |
Isobutane (Class A3) has the lowest pressure and also the second-lowest power consumption. R-32 (Class A1, but also an HFC) has the second-highest pressure, and a power consumption similar to isobutane. The refrigerants with lowest pressure generally have larger compressor displacements (i.e., they require a larger cylinder size in a reciprocating compressor).
Two common performance metrics for refrigeration systems can be computed from these data if desired. The coefficient of performance (COP)the refrigeration effect per unit power inputis equal to 1kW/(power consumption), since the power is given per 1kW of refrigeration. The volumetric capacity, Qvol (MJ/m3)the cooling effect per unit volume entering the compressoris similarly equal to 1kW/(compressor displacement). Higher COP means greater energy efficiency and higher Qvol means a smaller system size.
ASHRAE also provides additional data for this case, and data for other operating conditions and additional refrigerants. The values and comparisons here are specific to this temperature range; the performance of a refrigerant may improve or degrade in other temperature ranges.
| Growing use, will eventually phase-down under US AIM Act | A2L (nontoxic, mildly flammable). GWP-100 is 50% of R-134a and 37% of R-410A. Atmospheric lifetime of 5.27 years. Used in residential and commercial air-conditioners and heat pumps. | |||||
| R-454B | Mixture: Difluoromethane (68.9%), R-1234yf (31.3%) | 1806 | 516 | Growing use, but also affected by US AIM Act | A2L (nontoxic, mildly flammable). R-454B is intended to replace R-410A in new equipment | |
| Mixture: R-1234yf (56%), R-134a (44%) | 1788 | 647 | Affected by restrictions of US AIM Act | Intended as drop-in replacement for pure R-134a in existing equipment. |
| Widely used in water chillers with centrifugal compressors during 20th C. Production was banned in developed countries by Montreal Protocol in 1996 and in developing (Article 5) countries in 2010. | ||||||
| Widely used in domestic refrigerators and automobile air conditioners during 20th C. Production was banned in developed countries by Montreal Protocol in 1996 and in developing (Article 5) countries in 2010. | ||||||
| Widely used in small air conditioners and commercial refrigeration during 20th C. US production and import was banned in 2010, and only reclaimed R-22 has been permitted since 2020. | ||||||
| R-123 HCFC-123 | CHCl2CF3 | 2,2-Dichloro-1,1,1-trifluoroethane | 325 | 90.4 | US phase-out | Safety class B1 (toxic, nonflammable). Used in large tonnage centrifugal chillers, as transitional successor to R-11. Only permitted in systems manufactured before 2020. US production and import will be phased out by 2030. |
| R-134a HFC-134a | CH2FCF3 | 1,1,1,2-Tetrafluoroethane | 4140 | 1530 | Wide legacy use, but being phased out | Replaced R-12 in refrigerators and automobiles, and replace R-11 in water chillers. Most common refrigerant in US autos from 1990s until phase-out began in 2010s. Largely banned in new stationary equipment in US as of 2025. Banned in new light vehicles as of 2025 and in all new vehicles after 2028. |
| Mixture: R-125 (44%) / R-143a (52%) / R-134a (4%) | 7258| 4808 | Being phased out| High GWP successor to R-502 in low-temperature commercial refrigeration. Restrictions are increasing over time | ||||
| R-407C | Mixture: Difluoromethane (23%), R-125 (25%), R-134a (52%) | 4411 | 1892 | Being phased down under US AIM Act | Replacement for R-22. Being phased out in the US starting in 2022. | |
| Mixture: Difluoromethane (50%), R-125 (50%) | 4705 | 2285||Still widely used, but being phased out |R-410A replaced R-22 and R-407C in most domestic AC systems. Most used in split heat pumps / AC in 2018, with almost 100% share in the US, but banned in new equipment starting January 1, 2025. | ||||
| CFC/HCFC blend. Widely used in low-temperature commercial refrigeration during 20th C. Production was banned in developed countries by Montreal Protocol in 1996 and in developing (Article 5) countries in 2010. |
| R-152a HFC-152a | CH3CHF2 | 1,1-Difluoroethane | 591 | 164 | Class A2 (flammable). Used as gas duster; concerns about inhalant abuse. |
| R-514A | Mixture: HFO-1336mzz(Z) (74.7%), HCO-1330E (25.3%) | 7 | 7 | Safety class B1 (toxic, nonflammable), low GWP. Replacement for R-123 in low-pressure centrifugal chillers for commercial and industrial applications. Being displaced by non-toxic HFO-1233zd(E). |
For these refrigerants, the R- number has the following form: R-prefixX1X2X3X4suffix, where
These rules generate the following series of refrigerants (with xx as shorthand for X3X4): R-xx, the methane series; R-1xx, the ethane series; R-2xx, the propane series; R-11xx, the ethene series; and R-12xx, the propene series.
For example, difluoromethane, a two digit number, has X1 = X2 = 0, implying a single carbon atom (the methane series) with two hydrogen atoms (X3-1) and two fluorine atoms (X4 = 2), thus CH2F2 (difluoromethane). Similarly, R-290 has X1 = 0 (no unsaturated carbon-carbon bonds), three carbon atoms (X2+1), eight hydrogen atoms (X3-1), and no fluorine atoms (X4 = 0), so C3H8 (propane).
The prefix, when present, is an upper-case letter "C" for , "E" for compounds containing an ether group, or "CE" for cyclic compounds with ether groups.
The suffix follows more complicated rules. Upper-letters suffixes are added for the following characteristics: "B" and "I", together with a number, indicate how many chlorine atoms have been replaced with bromine or iodine; "(E)" denotes a trans molecule; and "(Z)" denotes a cis molecule. The rules for lower-case suffixes depend upon the series of the molecule.
| Ethane derived chains • Number only: most symmetrical isomer • Lower-case suffix (a, b, c, etc.): increasingly unsymmetrical isomers Propane derived chains • Number only: only one isomer exists • First lower case suffix (a–f):
| Propene derived chains
• First lower case suffix (x, y, z):
|
As an example of the propene series, R-1234yf has one carbon-carbon double bond (X1 = 1) with three carbon atoms (X2+1=3, thus a propene structure), two hydrogen atoms (X3-1=2), and four fluorine atoms (X4 = 4), with fluorine on central bond (y) and a methylene group (f), which consists of a carbon atom double-bonded to another carbon and two of the hydrogen atoms. These details define 2,3,3,3-tetrafluoropropene, with the comma-separated numbers indicating which carbon atom attaches each fluorine atom.
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