In linguistics, reappropriation, reclamation, or resignification
Characteristics
A
reclaimed or
reappropriated word is a word that was at one time
pejorative but has been brought back into acceptable usage, usually starting within its original target, i.e. the communities that were pejoratively described by that word, and later spreading to the general populace as well.
Some of the terms being reclaimed have originated as non-pejorative terms that over time became pejorative. Reclaiming them can be seen as restoring their original intent. This, however, does not apply to all such words as some were used in a derogatory fashion from the very beginning.
In terms of linguistic theory, reappropriation can be seen as a specific case of a type of a semantic change, namely, of amelioration – a process through which a word's meaning becomes more positive over time.
Robin Brontsema suggested that there are at least three mutually exclusive goals of reclamation:
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Value reversal
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Neutralization
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Stigma exploitation
Value reversal refers to changing the meaning from pejorative to positive, while neutralization refers to changing the meaning from pejorative to neutral. Stigma exploitation, finally, refers to retaining the derogatory nature of such terms as a reminder that a given group has been subject to unfair treatment.
Reclamation can be seen as both a psychological, individual process and as a sociological, society-wide process.[ Citing Patricia Hill Collins, Black Feminist Thought: Knowledge, Consciousness and the Politics of Empowerment (New York: Routledge, 1991)] In terms of a personal process, it has been discussed in the context of empowerment that comes from "disarming the power of a dominant group to control one's own and others' views of oneself", and gaining control over the way one is described, and hence, one's self-image, self-control and self-understanding.
In terms of the wider sociopolitical empowerment process, reclamation process has also been credited with promoting social justice,
Although those terms are most often used in the context of language, this concept has also been used in relation to other cultural concepts, for example in the discussion of reappropriation of ,
Controversy and objections
Reclaimed words often remain controversial for a time, due to their original pejorative nature. For some terms, even "reclaimed" usage by members of the community concerned is a subject of controversy.
Often, not all members of a given community support the idea that a particular slur should be reclaimed at all.
In other cases, a word can be seen as acceptable when used by the members of the community that has reclaimed it (in-group usage), but its use by outside parties (out-group usage) can still be seen as derogatory and thus controversial.
For example, Brontsema noted in 2003 in his discussion of the reclaimed terms that while "the may be acceptable for African Americans to use it freely, it is off-limits to whites, whose usage of nigger cannot be the same, given its history and the general history of racial oppression and racial relations in the United States."
A similar argument has been made in 2009 for words associated with the LGBT movement like
queer or dyke.
A related discourse occurred with regards to the Washington Redskins name controversy, with the Native American community divided on whether the term has been reclaimed or not.
Those opposed to the reclamation of terms have argued that such terms are irredeemable and are forever connected to their derogatory meaning, and their usage will continue to hurt those who remember its original intent
In 2017, the US Supreme Court heard arguments for Matal v. Tam. In that case, the US Patent and Trademark Office refused a trademark registration for an Asian American band, The Slants, because it deemed the term disparaging. However, the court ruled unanimously in the band's favor. Washington University in St. Louis conducted an extensive study on reappropriation based on the band name and found that reclaimed words could be an effective tool for neutralizing disparaging words: "Reappropriation does seem to work in the sense of defusing insults, rendering them less disparaging and harmful."
For example the word "queer" in the sense of "homosexual" was originally strongly offensive, echoing the negative connotations of the word's older meanings, included "strange" and "odd". Since the 1980s, this term was reclaimed by some gay people as a self-reference. From nowadays, because of this reason, this term is still considered offensive by some, especially when used by a person whose sexual identity is not queer.
Examples
Sex and sexuality
There are many recent examples of linguistic re-appropriation in the areas of
human sexuality,
, sexual orientation, etc. Among these are:
Politics
In England,
Cavalier was a derogatory nickname reappropriated as self-identification,
in contrast to the term
Roundhead which, despite being used by the Royalists for the supporters of the Parliamentary cause, remained a derisory word up to the point of it being a punishable offense if used to refer to a soldier of the New Model Army.
(originally from the
Middle Irish word for 'pursuer' tóraidhe),
Whig (from
whiggamore; see the
Whiggamore Raid) and
Suffragette are other British examples.
In the American colonies, British officers used Yankee, a term originated in reference to Dutch settlers, as a derogatory term against the colonists. British officers created the early versions of the song "Yankee Doodle", as a criticism of the uncultured colonists, but during the Revolution, as the colonists began to reappropriate the label yankee as a point of pride, they likewise reappropriated the song, altering verses, and turning it into a patriotic anthem.
In the 1850s in the United States, a secretive political party was derisively dubbed the Know Nothing party, based on their penchant for saying "I know nothing" when asked for details by outsiders; this became the common name for the party. It eventually became a popular name, sufficiently so that consumer products like tea, candy, and even a freighter were branded with the name.[William E. Gienapp. "Salmon P. Chase, Nativism, and the Formation of the Republican Party in Ohio", pp. 22, 24. Ohio History, p. 93.]
Anarchism was mostly a derogatory term used by opponents of collectivist forms of socialism, until it was adopted by the anarchist movement in the late 1800s.[Baker, Zoe (2023). "Means And Ends: The Revolutionary Practice of Anarchism In Europe And The United States". AK Press. p. 30]
During the 2016 United States presidential election, Hillary Clinton referred to some Trump supporters as a "Basket of deplorables". Many Trump supporters endorsed the phrase.
Religion
One of the older examples of successful reclaiming is the term
Jesuit to refer to members of the Society of Jesus. This was originally a derogatory term referring to people who too readily invoked the name of
Jesus in their politics, but that members of the Society adopted over time for themselves, so that the word came to refer exclusively to them, and generally in a positive or neutral sense,
even though the term "Jesuitical" is derived from the Society of Jesus and is used to mean things like: manipulative, conspiring, treacherous, capable of intellectually justifying anything by convoluted reasoning.
Other examples can be found in the origins of Methodism; early members were originally mocked for their "methodical" and rule-driven religious devotion, founder John Wesley embraced the term for his movement.
Race, ethnicity, and nationality
To a lesser extent, and more controversially among the groups referred to, many racial, ethnic, and class terms have been reappropriated:
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Baster, the name is derived from bastaard, the Dutch word for "bastard". They are a Southern African ethnic group descended from White European men and Black African women. The Basters reappropriated it as a "proud name", claiming their ancestry and history.
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Black people, negro, nigga, or nigger by African Americans
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Curry, used a derogatory term for South Asians (often in conjunction with muncher or slurper), reappropriated by some members of the South Asian expatriate or American-Born Confused Desi community.
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Jew by the Jewish people (the word used to be seen as pejorative in English).
[Winer, Stuart. 19 December 2012. " Ukraine okays 'zhyd' slur for Jews." The Times of Israel.]
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Kugel, playful South African English slang for a materialistic young woman, originally was a derogatory term used by the elder generation of South African Jews for a young Jewish woman who forsook traditional Jewish dress values for those of the ostentatiously wealthy and became overly materialistic and overgroomed. The term was then reclaimed by those women.
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Peckerwood, originally black slang in the Southern United States for poor whites, reclaimed by white prison gangs
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Smoggie, originally a derogatory term for people from the North East England town of Middlesbrough, in reference to the town's notorious industrial pollution, now commonly used in self-identification.
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White trash, a classist slur referring to poor white people, reappropriated by some in the Southern states of the United States of America as a cultural symbol and badge of pride
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Wog by Australians of Greek, Italian, Arab Australians or Turkish descent.
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Ukrop, originally an ethnic slur for Ukrainians. Literally "dill", a pun: Ukrainian = ukrop.
Disability
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Cripple, crip, gimp by people with disabilities.
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Mad Pride by people with mental disorders.
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Overweight by people who are overweight or obese, particularly by the body positivity and fat acceptance movements
Art movements
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Impressionists In 1874 during their first independent art show, critic Louis Leroy penned a hostile review of the show in Le Charivari newspaper under the title "The Exhibition of the Impression-ists". In particular he used the painting Impression, soleil levant by Claude Monet to ridicule the painters for their lack of seriousness preferring to paint "fleeting impressions of the moment" rather than allegorical or ultra-realist themes.
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Stuckism is an international art movement founded in 1999; its members produce figurative art. Tracey Emin, one of the Young British Artists known for their conceptual art, accused her then-boyfriend of lack of imagination or reach, of being "stuck". He took on the term.
[Thomson, Charles (August 2004), "A Stuckist on Stuckism: Stella Vine", from: Ed. Frank Milner (2004), The Stuckists Punk Victorian, pp. 7–9, National Museums Liverpool, . Available online at "The Two Starts of Stuckism" and "The Virtual Stuckists" on stuckism.com.]
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Shoegaze is a genre of music characterized by traits such as heavily distorted guitars. The term "shoegaze" was initially a pejorative label, criticizing performers for tending to stand still and closely watch their during concerts; however, critics and artists later began to embrace the name.
[The evolution of the term shoegaze and its connotations has been discussed by Slowdive's Simon Scott. ]
Feminism
Words some feminist activists have argued should be reclaimed include:
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bitch
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cunt
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slut
[Brooke Candy (2013). "Das Me". "You say that I'm a slut, It ain't your business who I'm fucking with, A dude could fuck 3 bitches and they'd say that he's the man, But I get it in with twins, she's a whore, That's what they saying, It's time to take the word back 'Slut' is now a compliment, A sexy-ass female who running shit and confident, Lady who on top of it, a female with a sex drive."]
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lady
Others
See also
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Détournement, a similar strategy used for images
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Dysphemism, the process by which offensive terms can become acceptable without deliberate intervention
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Gaysper, reappropriated LGBT symbol
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Geographical renaming, which can include reclaiming an earlier pre-colonial name
