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Proskynesis (), also called proscynesis () or proskinesis (; ; ), was a solemn gesture of respect towards gods and people in many societies. Among the Persians, it referred to a man prostrating himself and kissing the land or the limbs of a respected person. It was also one of the religious rites among both Greeks and Romans.
In Byzantine Empire, it was a common gesture of supplication or reverence. The physical act ranged from full-fledged prostration or alternatively genuflection, a bow, or a simple greeting that concretized the relative positions of performer and beneficiary within a hierarchical order (τάξις ). The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium : in 3 vol. / ed. by Dr. Alexander Kazhdan. — N. Y. ; Oxford : Oxford University Press, 1991. — 2232 p. — . — Third volume, P. 1738
Alexander the Great proposed this practice during his lifetime in adapting to the local customs of the Persian areas he conquered, but it was not accepted by his Greek companions (such as noted by the court historian, Callisthenes); he later did not insist on the practice. Most of his men could cope with Alexander's interest for having a Persian wardrobe, but honoring the king as if he was a god with proskynesis went a bit too far. Alexander III and proskynesis: an affair According to Arrian, Callisthenes explains the existence of separated ways of honoring a god or a human and that prostration is a way to explicitly honor gods. It is seen as a threat to the Greeks, ‘who are men most devoted to freedom’. According to Callisthenes, prostration was a foreign and degrading fashion.
The Roman emperor Diocletian (AD 284–305) is usually thought to have introduced the practice to the Roman Empire, forming a break with the Roman Republic institutions of the principate, which preserved the form, if not the intent, of Roman Republic government. However, there is some evidence that an informal form of proskynesis was already practiced at the court of Septimius Severus. Frank Kolb, Herrscherideologie in der Spätantike. Review by Chris Epplett, Bryn Mawr Classical Review, 2002.07.02. The political reason for this change was to elevate the role of the emperor from "first citizen" to an otherworldly ruler, remote from his subjects, thus reducing the likelihood of successful revolt, which had plagued the Empire during the preceding 50 years.
Certain forms of proskynesis, such as those which entailed kissing the emperor's breast, hands, or feet, were reserved to specific categories of officials. The audience granted to native or foreign delegations included multiple series of proskynesis at points marked by porphyry disks ( omphalia) set in the floor. Until the 10th century at least, imperial ceremonial avoided proskynesis on Sundays out of reverence for the God. As a show of loyalty, proskynesis had strong political overtones; it recurs in imperial iconography and its importance in imperial ceremonial could sometimes raise delicate diplomatic dilemmas when foreign potentates were involved. The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium : in 3 vol. / ed. by Dr. Alexander Kazhdan. — N. Y. ; Oxford : Oxford University Press, 1991. — 2232 p. — . — T. 3, P. 1738
Similarly, the emperor was hailed no longer as " Imp(erator)" on coins, which meant "commander in chief" but as " D(ominus) N(oster)" – "Our Lord." With the conversion of Constantine I to Christianity, proskynesis became part of an elaborate ritual, whereby the emperor became God's on earth.John Julius Norwich Titular inflation also affected the other principal offices of the Empire. Justinian I and Theodora both insisted on an extreme form of proskynesis, even from members of the Roman Senate,Mitchell, Stephen. (2007) A History of the later Roman Empire AD 284–641: The Transformation of the Ancient World. Oxford: Blackwell, p. 228. and they were attacked for it by Procopius in his Secret History.Procopius, Secret History 30, 21–30.
As with the Greeks five centuries earlier, the practice was shocking but prevailed.Ammien Marcellin, History of Rome , 4th Century, Book XV, Chapter 5 With the conversion of Constantine to Christianity, it became part of an elaborate ritual, making the emperor "vice-regent of God on earth."
The question of the admissibility of proskynesis in relation to (bowing and kissing to icons) was raised in the 8th century during the period of iconoclasm. Opponents of proskynesis in relation to the icons referred to the Ten Commandments of the Law of Moses:
"You shall not make for yourself a Idolatry any likeness of anything that is in heaven above, or that is in the earth beneath, or that is in the water under the earth; you shall not bow down (προσκυνήσεις) to them nor serve (λατρεύσῃς) them. For I, the Tetragrammaton your God, am a jealous God."
One defender of proskynesis in relation to icons was John of Damascus. He wrote Three Treatises on the Divine Images in defense of the icons, in which he described several kinds of proskynesis. The first kind is the proskynesis of latria (λατρεία), which people give to God, who alone is adorable by nature. John believed that only the first kind of proskynesis associated with latreia was forbidden by God. Other kinds of proskynesis: proskynesis performed in relation to saints and images of them () are permitted by God. PG 94. / col. 1237, ϛ; col. 1245, ιϛ
In Christian theology, proskynesis denotes that simple veneration which is also permitted to saints, icons, etc., as opposed to Latria (worship), which is due only to the Trinity God. Different authors translate the Greek word "προσκύνησις" from Christian texts into English differently: adoration, worship,"The Nicene Council nullified the decrees of the iconoclastic Synod of Constantinople, and solemnly sanctioned a limited worship (proskynesis) of images." – Philip Schaff. "History of the Christian Church" / Volume III / FOURTH PERIOD: THE CHURCH AMONG THE BARBARIANS. From Gregory I. To Gregory VII. A. D. 590 – 1049 (1073). / CHAPTER X. WORSHIP AND CEREMONIES. / § 102. The Restoration of Image-Worship by the Seventh Oecumenical Council, 787. veneration, Bowing, reverence. "The Seven ecumenical councils of the undivided church : their canons and dogmatic decrees, together with the canons of all the local synods which have received ecumenical acceptance" / by Percival, Henry R, / 1900 / p. 550
"Greetings and respected proskynesis" (; ) for icons was established by the Second Council of Nicaea (Seventh Ecumenical Council) in 787. Sacrorum conciliorum nova et amplissima collectio. Tomus 13 col. 378
In Christianity
The verb προσκυνέω ( proskyneo) is often used in the Septuagint and New Testament for the worship of pagan gods or the worship of the God of Israel. In addition, this word in some cases was used for the worship of angels.
In the Book of Mormon
In the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, proskynesis occurs in a number of the narratives in the Book of Mormon.
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