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Miletus (Ancient Greek: Μίλητος, Mílētos) was an influential ancient Greek city on the western coast of Anatolia, near the mouth of the Maeander River in present day Turkey. Renowned in antiquity for its wealth, maritime power, and extensive network of colonies, Miletus was a major center of trade, culture, and innovation from the Bronze Age through the Roman period. The city played a foundational role in the development of early Greek philosophy and science, serving as the home of the Milesian school with thinkers such as Thales, Anaximander, and Anaximenes.
Miletus's prosperity was closely linked to its strategic coastal location and the productivity of its surrounding rural hinterland, which supported thriving agriculture and facilitated wide-ranging commercial activity. The city established dozens of colonies around the Mediterranean and Black Sea, significantly shaping the Ancient Greece’s expansion.
Archaeological investigations have revealed a rich material culture, including the sanctuary of Apollo at Didyma, remnants of the city's distinctive grid plan, and evidence of long-term agricultural and rural management. Throughout its history, Miletus experienced periods of autonomy and foreign rule, serving as a cultural crossroads between Greeks, Anatolians, and later Persian and Roman Empire spheres. The city’s enduring legacy is reflected in its contributions to philosophy, urban planning, and the spread of Greek civilization.
Ephorus says: Miletus was first founded and fortified above the sea by Cretans, where the Miletus of olden times is now situated, being settled by Sarpedon, who brought colonists from the Cretan Miletus and named the city after that Miletus, the place formerly being in possession of the Leleges.According to Pausanias, however, Miletus was a friend of Sarpedon from Crete, after whom the city was named. Miletus had a son named Kelados, and the heroon of Kelados has been found at Panormos, a port of Miletus near Didyma.
The legends recounted as history by the ancient historians and geographers are perhaps the strongest; the late mythographers have nothing historically significant to relate.The late fantasy fiction of Antoninus Liberalis, Metamorphoses XXX 1–2 after Nicander, can be safely disregarded as being in any way history. His entertaining tales have the imaginary character named Miletus fleeing Crete to avoid being forced to become the eromenos of King Minos. He founds the city only after slaying a giant named Asterius, son of Anax, after whom the region known as Miletus was called 'Anactoria', "place of Anax". Anax in Greek means "the king" and Asterius is "starry".
Miletus is then mentioned in the "Tawagalawa letter", part of a series including the Manapa-Tarhunta letter and the Milawata letter, all of which are less securely dated. The Tawagalawa letter notes that Milawata had a governor, Atpa, who was under the jurisdiction of Ahhiyawa (a growing state probably in Helladic period Mycenaean Greece); and that the town of Atriya was under Milesian jurisdiction. The Manapa-Tarhunta letter also mentions Atpa. Together the two letters tell that the adventurer Piyama-Radu had humiliated Manapa-Tarhunta before Atpa (in addition to other misadventures); a Hittite king then chased Piyama-Radu into Millawanda and, in the Tawagalawa letter, requested Piyama-Radu's extradition to Hittite empire.
The Milawata letter mentions a joint expedition by the Hittite king and a Luwian vassal (probably Kupanta-Kurunta of Mira) against Miletus, and notes that the city (together with Atriya) was now under Hittite control.
Homer mentions that during the time of the Trojan War, Miletus was an ally of Troy and was city of the Carians, under Nastes and
Iliad, book II
In the last stage of LHIIIB, the citadel of Bronze Age Pylos counted among its female slaves a mi-ra-ti-ja, Mycenaean Greek for "women from Miletus", written in Linear B syllabic script. Palaeolexicon, Word study tool of ancient languages
Miletus was one of the cities involved in the Lelantine War of the 8th century BC.
Both cities acted under the leadership and sanction of an Apollo oracle. Megara cooperated with that of Delphi. Miletus had her own oracle of Apollo Didymeus Milesios in Didyma. Also, there are many parallels in the political organisation of both cities.
According to Pausanias, the Megarians said that their town owed its origin to Car, the son of Phoroneus, who built the city citadel called 'Caria'.Paus. i. 39. § 5, i. 40. § 6 This 'Car of Megara' may or may not be one and the same as the 'Car of the Carians', also known as Car (King of Caria).
In the late 7th century BC, the tyrant Thrasybulus preserved the independence of Miletus during a 12-year war fought against the Lydian Empire. Miletos, the ornament of Ionia: history of the city to 400 B.C.E by Vanessa B. Gorman (University of Michigan Press) 2001 – pg 123 Thrasybulus was an ally of the famous tyrant Periander.
Miletus was an important center of philosophy and science, producing such men as Thales, Anaximander and Anaximenes. Referring to this period, religious studies professor F. E. Peters described pan-deism as "the legacy of the Milesians". As well as being a philosopher, Thales was also suggested to have initiated the famous grid plan of the city. An archaic orthogonal street system at Miletus has been confirmed by archaeological survey, but this system would not cover the entire urban center of Miletus until the classical period.
By the 6th century BC, Miletus had earned a maritime empire with many colonies, mainly scattered around the Black Sea. Miletus and its numerous colonies were culturally tied by, for example, the cult of Aphrodite, a deity associated with seafaring in the cultural context of Miletus. However, its maritime hegemony declined as a result of the Persian occupation in the early fourth century BC, and the vacuum of power was later filled by Athens. (2025). 9780203993934, Routledge. ISBN 9780203993934
In 358 BC, Artaxerxes II died and was succeeded by his son Artaxerxes III, who, in 355 BC, forced Athens to conclude a peace, which required its forces to leave Asia Minor (Anatolia) and acknowledge the independence of its rebellious allies.
When Alexander died in 323 BC, Miletus came under the control of Ptolemy, governor of Caria, and his satrap of Lydia, Asander, who had become autonomous. 'The Life of Alexander the Great' by John Williams, Henry Ketcham, p. 89 In 312 BC, Macedonian general Antigonus I Monophthalmus sent Docimus and Medeius to free the city and grant autonomy, restoring the democratic patrimonial regime. In 301 BC, after Antigonus I was killed in the Battle of Ipsus by the coalition of Lysimachus, Cassander, and Seleucus I Nicator, founder of the Seleucid Empire, Miletus maintained good relations with all the successors after Seleucus I Nicator made substantial donations to the sanctuary of Didyma and returned the statue of Apollo that had been stolen by the Persians in 494 BC.
In 295 BC, Antigonus I's son Demetrius Poliorcetes was the eponymous archon (stephanephorus) in the city, which allied with Ptolemy I Soter of Egypt, while Lysimachus assumed power in the region, enforcing a strict policy towards the Greek cities by imposing high taxes, forcing Miletus to resort to lending.
Aristides of Miletus, founder of the bawdy Milesian tale, flourished in the 2nd century BC.
Miletus benefited from Roman rule and most of the present monuments date to this period.
The New Testament mentions Miletus as the site where the Apostle Paul in 57 AD met the elders of the Mother Church of Ephesus near the close of his Third Missionary Journey, as recorded in Acts of the Apostles (Acts 20:15–38). It is believed that Paul stopped by the Great Harbour Monument and sat on its steps. He might have met the Ephesian elders there and then bade them farewell on the nearby beach. Miletus is also the city where Paul left Trophimus, one of his travelling companions, to recover from an illness (2 Timothy 4:20). Because this cannot be the same visit as Acts 20 (in which Trophimus accompanied Paul all the way to Jerusalem, according to Acts 21:29), Paul must have made at least one additional visit to Miletus, perhaps as late as 65 or 66 AD. Paul's previous successful three-year ministry in nearby Ephesus resulted in the evangelization of the entire province of Asia (see Acts 19:10, 20; 1 Corinthians 16:9). It is safe to assume that at least by the time of the apostle's second visit to Miletus, a fledgling Christian community was established in Miletus.
In 262 new city walls were built.
However the harbour was silting up and the economy was in decline. In 538 emperor Justinian rebuilt the walls but it had become a small town.
In the 15th century, the Ottoman Turks utilized the city as a harbour during their rule in Anatolia. As the harbour became silted up, the city was abandoned. Due to ancient and subsequent deforestation, overgrazing (mostly by goat herds), erosion and soil degradation, the ruins of the city lie some from the sea with filling the plain and bare hill ridges without soils and trees, a maquis shrubland remaining.
The Ilyas Bey Complex from 1403 with its mosque is a Europa Nostra awarded cultural heritage site in Miletus.
One remarkable artifact recovered from the city during the first excavations of the 19th century, the Market Gate of Miletus, was transported piece by piece to Germany and reassembled. It is currently exhibited at the Pergamon Museum in Berlin. The main collection of artifacts resides in the Miletus Museum in Didim, Aydın, serving since 1973.
Archaeologists discovered a cave under the city's theatre and believe that it is a "sacred" cave which belonged to the cult of Asklepius. 'Sacred Cave' in ancient Miletos awaits visitors The Ancient City of Miletos’s “Sacred Cave” Opened to Visitors
In antiquity the city possessed a harbor at the southern entry of a large bay, on which two more of the traditional twelve Ionian cities stood: Priene and Myus. The harbor of Miletus was additionally protected by the nearby small island of Lade. Over the centuries the gulf silted up with alluvium carried by the Meander River. Priene and Myus had lost their harbors by the Roman era, and Miletus itself became an inland town in the early Christian era; all three were abandoned to ruin as their economies were strangled by the lack of access to the sea. There is a Great Harbor Monument where, according to the New Testament account, the apostle Paul stopped on his way back to Jerusalem by boat. He met the Ephesian Elders and then headed out to the beach to bid them farewell, recorded in the book of Acts 20:17-38.
A gradual rise brought a level of about below present at about 5500 BP, creating several karst block islands of limestone, the location of the first settlements at Miletus. At about 1500 BC the karst shifted due to small crustal movements and the islands consolidated into a peninsula. Since then the sea has risen 1.75 m but the peninsula has been surrounded by sediment from the Maeander river and is now land-locked. Sedimentation of the harbor began at about 1000 BC, and by 300 AD Lake Bafa had been created.Crouch (2004) page 180.
Herodotus, describing the tactics of Alyattes against the Milesian countryside, writes: "He sent his army, marching to the sound of pipes and harps and bass and treble flutes, to invade when the crops in the land were ripe; and whenever he came to the Milesian territory, he neither demolished nor burnt nor tore the doors off the country dwellings, but let them stand unharmed; but he destroyed the trees and the crops of the land, and so returned to where he came from; for as the Milesians had command of the sea, it was of no use for his army to besiege their city. The reason that the Lydian did not destroy the houses was this: that the Milesians might have homes from which to plant and cultivate their land, and that there might be the fruit of their toil for his invading army to lay waste."Herodotus. Histories 1.17.
These rural systems supported olive cultivation, animal herding, and small-scale farming. Faunal remains suggest that herding was a major component of the rural economy. Excavations have shown a predominance of goat bones over sheep, possibly reflecting the influence of Crete animal husbandry techniques adopted in early Miletus.Greaves, Alan M. Miletos: A History. Routledge, 2002, p. 31.
Strabo, citing Ephorus, relates: "Miletus was first founded and fortified by the Cretans on the spot above the sea-coast where at present the ancient Miletus is situated, and that Sarpedon conducted thither settlers from the Miletus in Crete, and gave it the same name; that Leleges were the former occupiers of the country, and that afterwards Neleus built the present city."Strabo, Geography 14.1.6.
Farmsteads, oil presses, cisterns, and possible pastoral installations such as shepherding stations have been identified in the countryside, suggesting a decentralized but productive economy.Wilkinson, Toby C., and Anja Slawisch. "An Agro-Pastoral Palimpsest: New Insights into the Historical Rural Economy of the Milesian Peninsula." Anatolian Studies, vol. 70, 2020, pp. 2–3. The northern plains and Maeander valley, both under Milesian control, were especially fertile, providing grain and supporting livestock crucial to the city’s sustenance and export economy.Greaves, Alan M. Miletos: A History. Routledge, 2002, p. 23.
In addition to grain and wool, Miletus likely exported surplus olive oil during favorable years. Archaic Milesian Amphora, widely distributed and characterized by thickened rims, may have been used for oil transport.Greaves, Alan M. Miletos: A History. Routledge, 2002, p. 27.
Botanical evidence from the Milesian countryside also reveals the cultivation of figs and lentils. Carbonized fig remains have been found in large numbers, and fig trees were likely common along field margins, significantly influencing the diet in the region.Greaves, Alan M. Miletos: A History. Routledge, 2002, p. 30.
Both literary and archaeological evidence demonstrate that Miletus’ agricultural base was essential for sustaining its urban population, supporting rural life, and providing the surpluses that underpinned Milesian colonization and trade.
The extent of Milesian colonization was shaped by a convergence of economic, social, and political factors. Like other Greek Polis, Miletus faced pressures from population growth and competition for arable land, which drove many citizens to seek new opportunities overseas. Economic motivations included expanding trade networks and accessing new resources, especially along the Black Sea coast, which offered grain, fish, and raw materials not easily available in Ionia. Political factors, such as stasis (internal conflict) and the impact of foreign powers like Lydia and Persia, also contributed, sometimes prompting groups or exiles to establish new settlements abroad. Scholars note that Milesian colonization was characterized both by “proactive” ventures seeking commercial gain and “reactive” migrations resulting from disruptions at home.Greaves, Alan M. Miletos: A History. Routledge, 2002, pp. 74–78.Knight, John Brendan. The proactive and reactive stimuli of Archaic Milesian colonisation in the Black Sea before 494 B.C.E. The Open University, 2012, pp. 27–43.Sacks, David. Encyclopedia of the Ancient Greek World. Facts on File, 2005, p. 97.
The Black Sea region became a primary focus of Milesian colonial expansion from the seventh century BCE onward. Milesian foundations such as Sinope, Pontic Olbia, and Panticapaeum quickly grew into major trading hubs and centers for the exchange of goods between Greeks and indigenous populations. These colonies enabled Miletus to dominate regional commerce in grain, fish, and slaves, contributing significantly to the city’s wealth. The choice of the Black Sea also reflected both strategies to exploit new resources and responses to population and political pressures in Ionia.Greaves, Alan M. Miletos: A History. Routledge, 2002, pp. 104–107.Knight, John Brendan. The proactive and reactive stimuli of Archaic Milesian colonisation in the Black Sea before 494 B.C.E. The Open University, 2012, pp. 27–43.Sacks, David. Encyclopedia of the Ancient Greek World. Facts on File, 2005, p. 97.
Sinope, located on the southern coast of the Black Sea, was one of the earliest and most prosperous Milesian colonies, traditionally founded in the late seventh century BCE.Greaves, Alan M. Miletos: A History. Routledge, 2002, pp. 104–107.
Olbia, on the northwestern Black Sea coast, likewise became a major economic center, especially for grain exports to the Greek world.Greaves, Alan M. Miletos: A History. Routledge, 2002, pp. 104–107.Knight, John Brendan. The proactive and reactive stimuli of Archaic Milesian colonisation in the Black Sea before 494 B.C.E. The Open University, 2012, pp. 27–43.
Milesian colonization not only expanded the city’s economic and political reach, but also established enduring cultural connections across the Mediterranean and Black Sea, with many settlements continuing to thrive and influence local societies for centuries.Greaves, Alan M. Miletos: A History. Routledge, 2002, pp. 74–78.Sacks, David. Encyclopedia of the Ancient Greek World. Facts on File, 2005, p. 97.
While some Milesian colonies ultimately declined or were absorbed by neighboring powers, many—such as Sinope and Olbia—remained prominent centers of trade and Hellenic culture well into the Hellenistic and Roman periods. The archaeological remains and historical records of these colonies continue to shed light on the reach and legacy of Milesian influence throughout antiquity.Wilkinson, Toby C., and Anja Slawisch. "An Agro-Pastoral Palimpsest: New Insights into the Historical Rural Economy of the Milesian Peninsula." Anatolian Studies, vol. 70, 2020, pp. 1–26.Greaves, Alan M. Miletos: A History. Routledge, 2002, pp. 74–78.Sacks, David. Encyclopedia of the Ancient Greek World. Facts on File, 2005, p. 97.
Some colonies founded include:
Aristotle records that, “Thales, the founder of this kind of philosophy, stated it to be water. (This is why he declared that the earth rests on water.) …water is the principle of the nature of moist things.”Aristotle. Metaphysics. 983b6–27. Aristotle further notes, “Some say the rests on water. This is the oldest account that we have inherited, and they say that Thales of Miletus said this. It rests because it floats like wood or some other such thing…for nothing is by nature such as to rest on air, but on water.”Aristotle. Metaphysics. 983b6–27.
Thales’ student Anaximander introduced the concept of the apeiron (the infinite or indefinite) as a more abstract source of existence. According to Aristotle (via Simplicius): “Anaximander… said that the apeiron was the arkhē and element of things that are, and he was the first to introduce this name for the arkhē. …He says that the arkhē is neither water nor any of the other things called elements, but some other nature which is apeiron, out of which come to be all the heavens and the worlds in them. The things that are perish into the things from which they come to be, according to necessity, for they pay penalty and retribution to each other for their injustice in accordance with the ordering of time, as he says in rather poetical language.”Simplicius, in Aristotle. Physics. 24.13–21. Aristotle also states that for Anaximander, the apeiron “is deathless and indestructible…for it is divine.”Aristotle. Physics. 203b10–15.
Anaximenes, in turn, posited air ( aēr) as the basic element, suggesting it could transform into other forms of matter through rarefaction and condensation: “Anaximenes… declared that air is the underlying principle and that all the rest come to be from it by rarefaction and condensation. Fire, when air is rarefied; wind, then cloud, when condensed; water, then earth, then stones, and the rest come into being from these.”Simplicius, in Aristotle. Physics. 24.26–25.1.
The emergence of this rational mode of thinking was likely influenced by Miletus’s cosmopolitanism and its contact with the ancient cultures of the Near East.Greaves, Alan M. Miletos: A History. Routledge, 2002, p. 117. These intellectual foundations laid the groundwork for later developments in Greek philosophy and science.
Didyma was renowned for its oracle, second in prestige only to that of Delphi. Prophecies were delivered by a priestess within a richly adorned temple complex. Archaeological discoveries along the Sacred Way have uncovered rows of consecrated statues and inscriptions, often commissioned by Milesian elites and foreign notables.Greaves, Alan M. Miletos: A History. Routledge, 2002, p. 118.
The sanctuary was a hub for both religion and politics, reinforcing Miletus’ influence within Ionia and the wider Aegean Sea. Religious practices at Didyma, including oracular consultation and ritual dedication, reflected and shaped the city’s cultural identity and its connections with other Ionian communities.
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