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Marcus Aurelius Valerius Maxentius ( 283 – 28 October 312) was a Roman emperor from 306 until his death in 312. Despite ruling in Roman Italy and North Africa, and having the recognition of the Roman Senate in Rome, he was not recognized as a legitimate emperor by his fellow emperors.
He was the son of former Emperor Maximian and the son-in-law of Emperor Galerius. The latter part of his reign was preoccupied with civil war, allying with Maximinus Daza against Licinius and Constantine I. The latter defeated him at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge in 312, where Maxentius, with his army in flight, purportedly perished by drowning in the Tiber river.
Maxentius was the last emperor permanently to reside in Rome. He attempted to embellish, restore and improve the ancient capital, carrying out important building works, including the Temple of the Divine Romulus (dedicated to his deceased son), the Basilica of Maxentius, which was completed by Constantine, the villa and the circus of Maxentius.
In 305, Diocletian and Maximian abdicated, and the former Caesares Constantius and Galerius became Augusti. Although two sons of emperors – Constantine and Maxentius – were available, they were passed over for the new tetrarchy, and Valerius Severus and Maximinus Daza were appointed Caesars. Lactantius' Epitome states that Galerius hated Maxentius and used his influence with Diocletian to see that Maxentius was ignored in the succession; perhaps Diocletian also thought Maxentius was not qualified for the military duties of the imperial office. Maxentius retired to an estate some miles from Rome.
When Constantius died in 306, his son Constantine was crowned emperor on July 25 and subsequently accepted by Galerius into the Tetrarchy as Caesar. This set the precedent for Maxentius' accession later in the same year.
Maxentius managed to be recognized as emperor in Central Italy and Southern Italy, the islands of Corsica and Sardinia and Sicily, and the African provinces. Northern Italy remained under the control of the western Augustus Valerius Severus, who resided in Mediolanum (Milan).
Maxentius refrained from using the titles Augustus or Caesar at first and styled himself princeps invictus ("undefeated prince"), in the hope of obtaining recognition of his reign by the senior emperor Galerius. However, the latter refused to do so. Apart from his alleged antipathy towards Maxentius, Galerius probably wanted to deter others from following the examples of Constantine and Maxentius and declaring themselves emperors. Constantine firmly controlled his father's army and territories, and Galerius could pretend that his accession was part of the regular succession in the tetrarchy, but neither was the case with Maxentius: he would be the fifth emperor, and he had only few troops at his command. Galerius reckoned that it would be not too difficult to quell the usurpation, and early in 307, the Augustus Severus marched on Rome with a large army.
The majority of this army consisted of soldiers who had fought under Maxentius' father Maximian for years, and as Severus reached Rome, the majority of his army went over to Maxentius and received a large amount of money. When Maximian himself finally left his retreat and returned to Rome to assume the imperial office once again and support his son, Severus with the rest of his army retreated to Ravenna. Shortly after, he surrendered to Maximian, who promised that his life would be spared.
After the defeat of Severus, Maxentius took possession of northern Italy up to the Alps and the peninsula to the east, and assumed the title of Augustus, which (in his eyes) had become vacant with the surrender of Severus.
In 308, probably April, Maximian tried to depose his son in an assembly of soldiers in Rome; surprisingly to him, the present troops remained faithful to his son and he had to flee to Constantine. On 20 April, Maxentius proclaimed himself as the new Roman consul of the year, alongside his son Valerius Romulus. In the conference of Carnuntum, in the autumn of that same year, Maxentius was once again denied recognition as legitimate emperor, and Licinius was appointed Augustus with the task of regaining the lost domains. Late in 308, Domitius Alexander was acclaimed emperor in Carthage, and the African provinces seceded from Maxentian rule. This produced a dangerous situation for Maxentius, as Africa was critical to Rome's food supply.
Maxentius' eldest son Valerius Romulus died in 309, at the age of about fourteen, was Apotheosis and buried in a mausoleum in the Villa of Maxentius at the Via Appia. Nearby, Maxentius also constructed the Circus of Maxentius. After the death of Maximian in 309 or 310, relations with Constantine rapidly deteriorated and Maxentius allied with Maximinus Daza to counter an alliance between Constantine and Licinius. He allegedly tried to secure the province of Raetia north of the Alps, thereby dividing the realms of Constantine and Licinius (reported by Zosimus); the plan was not carried out, as Constantine acted first.
In 310, Maxentius lost Istria to Licinius, who could not continue the campaign. By the middle of 310 Galerius had become too ill to involve himself in imperial politics and he died soon after 30 April 311.Lactantius, 31–35; Eusebius, Historia Ecclesiastica 8.16. Elliott, Christianity of Constantine, 43; Jones, 66; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 68; Odahl, 95–96, 316.Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 39; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine, 43–44; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 68; Odahl, 95–96. Galerius' death destabilized what remained of the Tetrarchic system.Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 41; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine, 45; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 69; Odahl, 96. On hearing the news, Maximinus mobilized against Licinius and seized Asia Minor before meeting Licinius on the Bosphorus to arrange terms for peace.Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 39–40; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine, 44; Odahl, 96. In the meantime, Maxentius fortified northern Italy against potential invasions and sent a small army to Africa under the command of his praetorian prefect Rufius Volusianus which defeated and executed the usurper Domitius Alexander in 310 or 311. Maxentius used the opportunity to seize the wealth of his supporters, and to bring large amounts of grain to Rome. He also strengthened his support among the Christians of Italy by allowing them to elect a new Bishop of Rome, Pope Eusebius.Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 38; Odahl, 96. Maxentius was far from secure, his early support dissolving into open protest; by 312, he was a man barely tolerated.Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 68.Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 37. Without the revenues of the empire, Maxentius was forced to resume taxation in Italy to support his army and his building projects in Rome.Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 36–37; Odahl, 99. The election of a bishop did not aid much, either, as Diocletian's persecution had split the Italian church into competing factions over the issue of apostasy (see Donatism). The Christians of Italy could easily see that Constantine was more sympathetic to their plight than Maxentius.Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 38–39. In the summer of 311, Maxentius mobilized against Constantine while Licinius was occupied with affairs in the East. He declared war on Constantine, vowing to avenge his father's "murder".Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 40. Constantine, to prevent Maxentius from forming a hostile alliance with Licinius,Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 41. forged his own alliance with the man over the winter of 311–12 by offering to him his sister Constantia in marriage. Maximinus Daza considered Constantine's arrangement with Licinius an affront to his authority. In response, he sent ambassadors to Rome, offering political recognition to Maxentius in exchange for military support.Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 41; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine, 44–45; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 69; Odahl, 96. Two alliances, Maximinus and Maxentius, Constantine and Licinius, lined up against one another. The emperors prepared for war.Odahl, 96.
At the approach to the west of the important city of Augusta Taurinorum (Turin, Italy), Constantine encountered a large force of heavily armed Maxentian cavalry,Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 41; Odahl, 101–02. labeled clibanarii or in the ancient sources. In the ensuing battle Constantine spread his forces into a line, allowing Maxentius' cavalry to ride into the middle of his forces. As his forces broadly encircled the enemy cavalry, Constantine's own cavalry charged at the sides of the Maxentian cataphracts, beating them with iron-tipped clubs. Many Maxentian cavalrymen were dismounted, while most others were variously incapacitated by the blows. Constantine then commanded his foot soldiers to advance against the surviving Maxentian infantry, cutting them down as they fled. Panegyrici Latini 12(9).5–6; 4(10).21–24; Odahl, 102, 317–18. Victory, the panegyrist who speaks of the events declares, came easily. Panegyrici Latini 12(9).8.1; 4(10).25.1; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 41, 305. Turin refused to give refuge to the retreating forces of Maxentius. It opened its gates to Constantine instead. Other cities of the north Italian plain, recognizing Constantine's quick and clement victories, sent him embassies of congratulation for his victory. He moved on to Milan, where he was met with open gates and jubilant rejoicing. He resided there until the middle of the summer of 312 before moving on.Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 41–42; Odahl, 103.
The armies of Maxentius and Constantine met north of the city, some distance outside the walls, beyond the Tiber river on the Via Flaminia. Christian tradition, especially Lactantius and Eusebius of Caesarea, claims that Constantine fought under the labarum in that battle, revealed to him in a dream. Of the battle itself, not much is known – Constantine's forces defeated Maxentius's troops, who retreated to the Tiber, and in the chaos of the fleeing army trying to cross the river, Maxentius fell into the water and drowned. His body was found the next day and paraded through the city, and later sent to Africa, as a sign that he had surely perished. Maxentius' entire family, including his two orphaned children, were also executed.
1- made Christianity a licit religion welcoming the "New Gods" in the Pax Deorum (Epistle 1)
2- abolished the edict of persecution of Diocletian by law (Epistle 1)
3- threatens serious punishments for anyone persisting in the persecution of Christians (Epistle 1)
4- He raged against the Donatist sect in Africa, reaffirming its strategic alliance with the Church of Rome (Epistle 2)
The Diocletianic Persecutions extended from 303 to 311 in all territories of the Empire, except at this point those under the jurisdiction of Maxentius the Roman empire's last, largest, and bloodiest official persecution of Christianity. Constantine came to power in 311 after defeating Maxentius at the Milvian bridge, where Maxentius drowned.
Maxentius was a prolific builder, whose achievements were overshadowed by Constantine's issue of a damnatio memoriae against him. Many buildings in Rome that are commonly associated with Constantine, such as the great basilica in the forum Romanum, were in fact built by Maxentius.Cullhed, M (1994) Conservator Urbis Suae Stockholm; Kerr, L (2001) A topography of death: the buildings of the emperor Maxentius on the Via Appia, Rome In M Carruthers et al (eds) Eleventh Annual Proceedings of the Theoretical Roman Archaeology Conference pp. 24–33 Oxford: Oxbow
Essays from The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Constantine are marked with a "(CC)".
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