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A lithium-ion battery, or Li-ion battery, is a type of rechargeable battery that uses the reversible intercalation of Li+ ions into electronically conducting solids to store energy. Li-ion batteries are characterized by higher specific energy, energy density, and energy efficiency and a longer cycle life and calendar life than other types of rechargeable batteries. Also noteworthy is a dramatic improvement in lithium-ion battery properties after their market introduction in 1991; over the following 30 years, their volumetric energy density increased threefold while their cost dropped tenfold. In late 2024 global demand passed per year, while production capacity was more than twice that.
The invention and commercialization of Li-ion batteries has had a large impact on technology,The lithium-ion battery: State of the art and future perspectives. 2018. Renew Sust Energ Rev. 89/292-308. G. Zubi, R. Dufo-Lopez, M. Carvalho, G. Pasaoglu. doi: 10.1016/j.rser.2018.03.002. as recognized by the 2019 Nobel Prize in Chemistry. Li-ion batteries have enabled portable consumer electronics, laptop computers, cellular phones, and electric cars. Li-ion batteries also see significant use for grid-scale energy storage as well as military and aerospace applications.
M. Stanley Whittingham conceived intercalation electrodes in the 1970s and created the first rechargeable lithium-ion battery, based on a titanium disulfide cathode and a lithium-aluminium anode, although it suffered from safety problems and was never commercialized. John Goodenough expanded on this work in 1980 by using lithium cobalt oxide as a cathode. The first prototype of the modern Li-ion battery, which uses a carbonaceous anode rather than lithium metal, was developed by Akira Yoshino in 1985 and commercialized by a Sony and Asahi Kasei team led by Yoshio Nishi in 1991. Whittingham, Goodenough, and Yoshino were awarded the 2019 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for their contributions to the development of lithium-ion batteries.
Lithium-ion batteries can be a fire or explosion hazard as they contain flammable electrolytes. Progress has been made in the development and manufacturing of safer lithium-ion batteries. Lithium-ion solid-state batteries are being developed to eliminate the flammable electrolyte. Recycled batteries can create toxic waste, including from toxic metals, and are a fire risk. Both lithium and other minerals can have significant issues in mining, with lithium being water intensive in often arid regions and other minerals used in some Li-ion chemistries potentially being conflict minerals such as cobalt. Environmental issues have encouraged some researchers to improve mineral efficiency and find alternatives such as lithium iron phosphate lithium-ion chemistries or non-lithium-based battery chemistries such as sodium-ion and Iron-air battery batteries.
"Li-ion battery" can be considered a generic term involving at least 12 different chemistries; see List of battery types. Lithium-ion cells can be manufactured to optimize energy density or power density. Handheld electronics mostly use lithium polymer batteries (with a polymer gel as an electrolyte), a lithium cobalt oxide () cathode material, and a graphite anode, which together offer high energy density. Lithium iron phosphate (), lithium manganese oxide ( spinel, or -based lithium-rich layered materials, LMR-NMC), and lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide ( or NMC) may offer longer life and a higher discharge rate. NMC and its derivatives are widely used in the electrification of transport, one of the main technologies (combined with renewable energy) for reducing greenhouse gas emissions from vehicles.
The growing demand for safer, more energy-dense, and longer-lasting batteries is driving innovation beyond conventional lithium-ion chemistries. According to a market analysis report by Consegic Business Intelligence, next-generation battery technologies—including lithium-sulfur, solid-state, and lithium-metal variants are projected to see significant commercial adoption due to improvements in performance and increasing investment in R&D worldwide. These advancements aim to overcome limitations of traditional lithium-ion systems in areas such as electric vehicles, consumer electronics, and grid storage.
In 1980, working in separate groups Ned A. Godshall et al.,Godshall, Ned A. (17 October 1979) "Electrochemical and Thermodynamic Investigation of Ternary Lithium-Transition Metal-Oxide Cathode Materials for Lithium Batteries: Li2MnO4 spinel, LiCoO2, and LiFeO2", Presentation at 156th Meeting of the Electrochemical Society, Los Angeles, CA.Godshall, Ned A. (18 May 1980) Electrochemical and Thermodynamic Investigation of Ternary Lithium-Transition Metal-Oxygen Cathode Materials for Lithium Batteries. Ph.D. Dissertation, Stanford University and, shortly thereafter, Koichi Mizushima and John B. Goodenough, after testing a range of alternative materials, replaced with lithium cobalt oxide (, or LCO), which has a similar layered structure but offers a higher voltage and is much more stable in air. This material would later be used in the first commercial Li-ion battery, although it did not, on its own, resolve the persistent issue of flammability.
These early attempts to develop rechargeable Li-ion batteries used lithium metal anodes, which were ultimately abandoned due to safety concerns, as lithium metal is unstable and prone to dendrite formation, which can cause Short circuit. The eventual solution was to use an intercalation anode, similar to that used for the cathode, which prevents the formation of lithium metal during battery charging. The first to demonstrate lithium ion reversible intercalation into graphite anodes was Jürgen Otto Besenhard in 1974. Besenhard used organic solvents such as carbonates, however these solvents decomposed rapidly providing short battery cycle life. Later, in 1980, Rachid Yazami used a solid organic electrolyte, polyethylene oxide, which was more stable.International Meeting on Lithium Batteries, Rome, 27–29 April 1982, C.L.U.P. Ed. Milan, Abstract #23
In 1985, Akira Yoshino at Asahi Kasei Corporation discovered that petroleum coke, a less graphitized form of carbon, can reversibly intercalate Li-ions at a low potential of ~0.5 V relative to Li+ /Li without structural degradation.Yoshino, A., Sanechika, K. & Nakajima, T. Secondary battery. JP patent 1989293 (1985) Its structural stability originates from its amorphous carbon regions, which serving as covalent joints to pin the layers together. Although it has a lower capacity compared to graphite (~Li0.5C6, 186 mAh g–1), it became the first commercial intercalation anode for Li-ion batteries owing to its cycling stability. In 1987, Yoshino patented what would become the first commercial lithium-ion battery using this anode. He used Goodenough's previously reported LiCoO2 as the cathode and a carbonate ester-based electrolyte. The battery was assembled in the discharged state, which made it safer and cheaper to manufacture. In 1991, using Yoshino's design, Sony began producing and selling the world's first rechargeable lithium-ion batteries. The following year, a joint venture between Toshiba and Asahi Kasei Co. also released a lithium-ion battery.
Significant improvements in energy density were achieved in the 1990s by replacing Yoshino's soft carbon anode first with hard carbon and later with graphite. In 1990, Jeff Dahn and two colleagues at Dalhousie University (Canada) reported reversible intercalation of lithium ions into graphite in the presence of ethylene carbonate solvent (which is solid at room temperature and is mixed with other solvents to make a liquid). This represented the final innovation of the era that created the basic design of the modern lithium-ion battery.
In 2010, global lithium-ion battery production capacity was 20 gigawatt-hours. By 2016, it was 28 GWh, with 16.4 GWh in China. Global production capacity was 767 GWh in 2020, with China accounting for 75%. Production in 2021 is estimated by various sources to be between 200 and 600 GWh, and predictions for 2023 range from 400 to 1,100 GWh.
In 2012, John B. Goodenough, Rachid Yazami and Akira Yoshino received the 2012 IEEE Medal for Environmental and Safety Technologies for developing the lithium-ion battery; Goodenough, Whittingham, and Yoshino were awarded the 2019 Nobel Prize in Chemistry "for the development of lithium-ion batteries". Jeff Dahn received the ECS Battery Division Technology Award (2011) and the Yeager award from the International Battery Materials Association (2016).
In April 2023, CATL announced that it would begin scaled-up production of its semi-solid condensed matter battery that produces a then record 500 Wh/kg. They use electrodes made from a gelled material, requiring fewer binding agents. This in turn shortens the manufacturing cycle. One potential application is in battery-powered airplanes. Another new development of lithium-ion batteries are flow batteries with redox-targeted solids that use no binders or electron-conducting additives, and allow for completely independent scaling of energy and power.Flow batteries with solid energy boosters. 2022. J Electrochem Sci Eng. 12/4, 731–66. Y.V. Tolmachev, S.V. Starodubceva. doi: 10.5599/jese.1363.
The negative and positive electrodes swap their electrochemical roles (anode and cathode) when the cell is charged. Despite this, in discussions of battery design the negative electrode of a rechargeable cell is often just called "the anode" and the positive electrode "the cathode".
In its fully lithiated state of LiC6, graphite correlates to a theoretical capacity of 1339 per gram (372 mAh/g). G. Shao et al.: Polymer-Derived SiOC Integrated with a Graphene Aerogel As a Highly Stable Li-Ion Battery Anode ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2020, 12, 41, 46045–46056 The positive electrode is generally one of three materials: a layered oxide (such as lithium cobalt oxide), a Polyelectrolyte (such as lithium iron phosphate) or a spinel (such as lithium manganese oxide). More experimental materials include graphene-containing electrodes, although these remain far from commercially viable due to their high cost.
Lithium reacts vigorously with water to form lithium hydroxide (LiOH) and hydrogen gas. Thus, a non-aqueous electrolyte is typically used, and a sealed container rigidly excludes moisture from the battery pack. The non-aqueous electrolyte is typically a mixture of organic carbonates such as ethylene carbonate and propylene carbonate containing complexes of lithium ions. MSDS: National Power Corp Lithium Ion Batteries (PDF). tek.com; Tektronix Inc., 7 May 2004. Retrieved 11 June 2010. Ethylene carbonate is essential for making solid electrolyte interphase on the carbon anode,Revisiting the Ethylene Carbonate-Propylene Carbonate Mystery with Operando Characterization. 2022. Adv Mater Interfaces. 9/8, 7. T. Melin, R. Lundstrom, E.J. Berg. doi: 10.1002/admi.202101258. but since it is solid at room temperature, a liquid solvent (such as propylene carbonate or diethyl carbonate) is added.
The electrolyte salt is almost always lithium hexafluorophosphate (), which combines good ionic conductivity with chemical and electrochemical stability. The hexafluorophosphate anion is essential for passivating the aluminium current collector used for the positive electrode. A titanium tab is ultrasonically welded to the aluminium current collector. Other salts like lithium perchlorate (), lithium tetrafluoroborate (), and lithium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide () are frequently used in research in tab-less Button cell, but are not usable in larger format cells, often because they are not compatible with the aluminium current collector. Copper (with a Spot welding nickel tab) is used as the current collector at the negative electrode.
Current collector design and surface treatments may take various forms: foil, mesh, foam (dealloyed), etched (wholly or selectively), and coated (with various materials) to improve electrical characteristics.
Depending on materials choices, the voltage, energy density, life, and safety of a lithium-ion cell can change dramatically. Current effort has been exploring the use of novel architectures using nanotechnology to improve performance. Areas of interest include nano-scale electrode materials and alternative electrode structures.
During cell discharge the negative electrode is the anode and the positive electrode the cathode: electrons flow from the anode to the cathode through the external circuit. An oxidation half-reaction at the anode produces positively charged lithium ions and negatively charged electrons. The oxidation half-reaction may also produce uncharged material that remains at the anode. Lithium ions move through the electrolyte; electrons move through the external circuit toward the cathode where they recombine with the cathode material in a reduction half-reaction. The electrolyte provides a conductive medium for lithium ions but does not partake in the electrochemical reaction. The reactions during discharge lower the chemical potential of the cell, so discharging transfers energy from the cell to wherever the electric current dissipates its energy, mostly in the external circuit.
During charging these reactions and transports go in the opposite direction: electrons move from the positive electrode to the negative electrode through the external circuit. To charge the cell the external circuit has to provide electrical energy. This energy is then stored as chemical energy in the cell (with some loss, e. g., due to coulombic efficiency lower than 1).
Both electrodes allow lithium ions to move in and out of their structures with a process called insertion ( intercalation) or extraction ( deintercalation), respectively.
As the lithium ions "rock" back and forth between the two electrodes, these batteries are also known as "rocking-chair batteries" or "swing batteries" (a term given by some European industries).
The following equations exemplify the chemistry (left to right: discharging, right to left: charging).
The negative electrode half-reaction for the graphite is (2025). 9789401708432, Springer. ISBN 9789401708432
The positive electrode half-reaction in the lithium-doped cobalt oxide substrate is
The full reaction being
The overall reaction has its limits. Overdischarging supersaturates lithium cobalt oxide, leading to the production of lithium oxide, possibly by the following irreversible reaction:
Overcharging up to 5.2 volts leads to the synthesis of cobalt (IV) oxide, as evidenced by x-ray diffraction:
The cell's energy is equal to the voltage times the charge. Each gram of lithium represents Faraday's constant/6.941, or 13,901 coulombs. At 3 V, this gives 41.7 kJ per gram of lithium, or 11.6 kWh per kilogram of lithium. This is slightly more than the heat of combustion of gasoline; however, lithium-ion batteries as a whole are still significantly heavier per unit of energy due to the additional materials used in production.
Note that the cell voltages involved in these reactions are larger than the potential at which an would electrolysis.
During charging, an external electrical power source applies an over-voltage (a voltage greater than the cell's own voltage) to the cell, forcing electrons to flow from the positive to the negative electrode. The lithium ions also migrate (through the electrolyte) from the positive to the negative electrode where they become embedded in the porous electrode material in a process known as intercalation.
Energy losses arising from electrical contact resistance at interfaces between electrode layers and at contacts with current collectors can be as high as 20% of the entire energy flow of batteries under typical operating conditions.
The charging procedures for single Li-ion cells, and complete Li-ion batteries, are slightly different:
During the constant current phase, the charger applies a constant current to the battery at a steadily increasing voltage, until the top-of-charge voltage limit per cell is reached.
During the balance phase, the charger/battery reduces the charging current (or cycles the charging on and off to reduce the average current) while the state of charge of individual cells is brought to the same level by a balancing circuit until the battery is balanced. Balancing typically occurs whenever one or more cells reach their top-of-charge voltage before the other(s), as it is generally inaccurate to do so at other stages of the charge cycle. This is most commonly done by passive balancing, which Dissipation excess charge as heat via connected momentarily across the cells to be balanced. Active balancing is less common, more expensive, but more efficient, returning excess energy to other cells (or the entire pack) via a DC-DC converter or other circuitry. Balancing most often occurs during the constant voltage stage of charging, switching between charge modes until complete. The pack is usually fully charged only when balancing is complete, as even a single cell group lower in charge than the rest will limit the entire battery's usable capacity to that of its own. Balancing can last hours or even days, depending on the magnitude of the imbalance in the battery.
During the constant voltage phase, the charger applies a voltage equal to the maximum cell voltage times the number of cells in series to the battery, as the current gradually declines towards 0, until the current is below a set threshold of about 3% of initial constant charge current.
Periodic topping charge about once per 500 hours. Top charging is recommended to be initiated when voltage goes below
Failure to follow current and voltage limitations can result in an explosion.
Charging temperature limits for Li-ion are stricter than the operating limits. Lithium-ion chemistry performs well at elevated temperatures but prolonged exposure to heat reduces battery life. Li‑ion batteries offer good charging performance at cooler temperatures and may even allow "fast-charging" within a temperature range of . Charging should be performed within this temperature range. At temperatures from 0 to 5 °C charging is possible, but the charge current should be reduced. During a low-temperature (under 0 °C) charge, the slight temperature rise above ambient due to the internal cell resistance is beneficial. High temperatures during charging may lead to battery degradation and charging at temperatures above 45 °C will degrade battery performance, whereas at lower temperatures the internal resistance of the battery may increase, resulting in slower charging and thus longer charging times.
Batteries gradually self-discharge even if not connected and delivering current. Li-ion rechargeable batteries have a self-discharge rate typically stated by manufacturers to be 1.5–2% per month. Sanyo: Overview of Lithium Ion Batteries. , listing self-discharge rate of 2%/mo. Sanyo: Harding energy specification. , listing self-discharge rate of 0.3%/mo.
The rate increases with temperature and state of charge. A 2004 study found that for most cycling conditions self-discharge was primarily time-dependent; however, after several months of stand on open circuit or float charge, state-of-charge dependent losses became significant. The self-discharge rate did not increase monotonically with state-of-charge, but dropped somewhat at intermediate states of charge. Self-discharge rates may increase as batteries age. In 1999, self-discharge per month was measured at 8% at 21 °C, 15% at 40 °C, 31% at 60 °C. By 2007, monthly self-discharge rate was estimated at 2% to 3%, and 2–3% by 2016. (2025). 9780128034408 ISBN 9780128034408
By comparison, the self-discharge rate for NiMH batteries dropped, as of 2017, from up to 30% per month for previously common cells to about 0.08–0.33% per month for low self-discharge NiMH batteries, and is about 10% per month in NiCd batteries.
Several other first-row (3d) also form layered LiMO2 salts. Some can be directly prepared from lithium oxide and M2O3 (e.g. for M=Ti, V, Cr, Co, Ni), while others (M= Mn or Fe) can be prepared by ion exchange from NaMO2. LiVO2, LiMnO2 and LiFeO2 suffer from structural instabilities (including mixing between M and Li sites) due to a low energy difference between octahedral and tetrahedral environments for the metal ion M. For this reason, they are not used in lithium-ion batteries. However, Na+ and Fe3+ have sufficiently different sizes that NaFeO2 can be used in sodium-ion batteries.Okada, S. and Yamaki, J.-I. (2009). Iron-Based Rare-Metal-Free Cathodes. In Lithium Ion Rechargeable Batteries, K. Ozawa (Ed.). https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9783527629022.ch4
Similarly, LiCrO2 shows reversible lithium (de)intercalation around 3.2 V with 170–270 mAh/g.Electrochemical performance of CrOx cathode material for high energy density lithium batteries. 2023. Int J Electrochem Sci. 18/2, 44. D. Liu, X. Mu, R. Guo, J. Xie, G. Yin, P. Zuo. doi: 10.1016/j.ijoes.2023.01.020. However, its Charge cycle life is short, because of disproportionation of Cr4+ followed by translocation of Cr6+ into tetrahedral sites.Industrialization of Layered Oxide Cathodes for Lithium-Ion and Sodium-Ion Batteries: A Comparative Perspective. 2020. Energy Technol. 8/12, 13. J. Darga, J. Lamb, A. Manthiram. doi: 10.1002/ente.202000723. On the other hand, NaCrO2 shows a much better cycling stability.K. Kubota, S. Kumakura, Y. Yoda, K. Kuroki, S. Komaba, Adv. Energy Mater. 2018, 8, 1703415 LiTiO2 shows Li+ (de)intercalation at a voltage of ~1.5 V, which is too low for a cathode material.
These problems leave and as the only practical layered oxide materials for lithium-ion battery cathodes. The cobalt-based cathodes show high theoretical specific (per-mass) charge capacity, high volumetric capacity, low self-discharge, high discharge voltage, and good cycling performance. Unfortunately, they suffer from a high cost of the material. For this reason, the current trend among lithium-ion battery manufacturers is to switch to cathodes with higher Ni content and lower Co content.
In addition to a lower (than cobalt) cost, nickel-oxide based materials benefit from the two-electron redox chemistry of Ni: in layered oxides comprising nickel (such as nickel-cobalt-manganese NCM and nickel-cobalt-aluminium oxides NCA), Ni cycles between the oxidation states +2 and +4 (in one step between +3.5 and +4.3 V),Ohzuku, T., Ueda, A. & Nagayama, M. Electrochemistry and structural chemistry of (R3m) for 4 volt secondary lithium cells. J. Electrochem. Soc. 140, 1862–1870 (1993). cobalt- between +2 and +3, while Mn (usually >20%) and Al (typically, only 5% is needed)W. Li, E.M. Erickson, A. Manthiram, Nat. Energy 5 (2020) 26–34 remain in +4 and 3+, respectively. Thus increasing the Ni content increases the cyclable charge. For example, NCM111 shows 160 mAh/g, while (NCM811) and (NCA) deliver a higher capacity of ~200 mAh/g.Nickel-rich layered oxide cathodes for lithium-ion batteries: Failure mechanisms and modification strategies. 2023. J Energy Storage. 58/. X. Zheng, Z. Cai, J. Sun, J. He, W. Rao, J. Wang, et al. doi: 10.1016/j.est.2022.106405 ; W. Li, E.M. Erickson, A. Manthiram, Nat. Energy 5 (2020) 26–34 NCM and NCA batteries are collectively called Ternary Lithium Batteries.
It is worth mentioning so-called "lithium-rich" cathodes that can be produced from traditional NCM (, where M=Ni, Co, Mn) layered cathode materials upon cycling them to voltages/charges corresponding to Li:M<0.5. Under such conditions a new semi-reversible redox transition at a higher voltage with ca. 0.4-0.8 electrons/metal site charge appears. This transition involves non-binding electron orbitals centered mostly on O atoms. Despite significant initial interest, this phenomenon did not result in marketable products because of the fast structural degradation (O2 evolution and lattice rearrangements) of such "lithium-rich" phases.
An important improvement of Mn spinel are related cubic structures of the LiMn1.5Ni0.5O4 type, where Mn exists as Mn4+ and Ni cycles reversibly between the oxidation states +2 and +4. This materials show a reversible Li-ion capacity of ca. 135 mAh/g around 4.7 V. Although such high voltage is beneficial for increasing the specific energy of batteries, the adoption of such materials is currently hindered by the lack of suitable high-voltage electrolytes.Nickel-rich layered oxide cathodes for lithium-ion batteries: Failure mechanisms and modification strategies. 2023. J Energy Storage. 58/. X. Zheng, Z. Cai, J. Sun, J. He, W. Rao, J. Wang, et al. doi: 10.1016/j.est.2022.106405. In general, materials with a high nickel content are favored in 2023, because of the possibility of a 2-electron cycling of Ni between the oxidation states +2 and +4.
LiV2O4 (lithium vanadium oxide) operates as a lower (ca. +3.0 V) voltage than LiMn2O4, suffers from similar durability issues, is more expensive, and thus is not considered of practical interest.de Picciotto, L. A. & Thackeray, M. M. Insertion/extraction reactions of lithium with LiV2O4. Mater. Res. Bull. 20, 1409–1420 (1985)
Although numerous combinations of oxoanions (sulfate, phosphate, silicate) with various metals (mostly Mn, Fe, Co, Ni) have been studied, LiFePO4 is the only one that has been commercialized. Although it was originally used primarily for stationary energy storage due to its lower energy density compared to layered oxides, it has begun to be widely used in electric vehicles since the 2020s.
| + Positive electrode ! Technology!! Major producers (2023)!! Target application !! Advantages | |||
| Lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide NMC, LiNiMnCoO | Ronbay Technology, Easpring, Ecopro, Umicore, L&F, Posco | , , grid energy storage | Good specific energy and specific power density |
| Lithium nickel cobalt aluminium oxide NCA, LiNiCoAlO | Ronbay Technology, Ecopro | , , grid energy storage | High energy density, good life span |
| Lithium nickel cobalt manganese aluminium oxide NCMA, | LG Chem, Hanyang University | , grid energy storage | Good specific energy, improved long-term cycling stability, faster charging |
| Lithium manganese oxide LMO, LiMnO | Posco, L&F | Power tools, electric vehicles | Fast charging speed, cheap |
| Lithium iron phosphate LFP, LiFePO | Shenzhen Dynanonic, Hunan Yuneng, LOPAL, Ronbay Technology | , grid energy storage | Higher safety compared to layered oxides. Very long cycle life. Thermal stability > |
| Lithium cobalt oxide LCO, LiCoO | Easpring, Umicore | Mobile device | High energy density |
These materials are used because they are abundant, electrically conducting and can intercalate lithium ions to store electrical charge with modest volume expansion (~10%). Graphite is the dominant material because of its low intercalation voltage and excellent performance. Various alternative materials with higher capacities have been proposed, but they usually have higher voltages, which reduces energy density. Low voltage is the key requirement for anodes; otherwise, the excess capacity is useless in terms of energy density.
As graphite is limited to a maximum capacity of 372 mAh/g much research has been dedicated to the development of materials that exhibit higher theoretical capacities and overcoming the technical challenges that presently encumber their implementation. The extensive 2007 Review Article by Kasavajjula et al. summarizes early research on silicon-based anodes for lithium-ion secondary cells. In particular, Hong Li et al. showed in 2000 that the electrochemical insertion of lithium ions in silicon and silicon nanowires leads to the formation of an amorphous Li–Si alloy. The same year, Bo Gao and his doctoral advisor, Professor Otto Zhou described the cycling of electrochemical cells with anodes comprising silicon nanowires, with a reversible capacity ranging from at least approximately 900 to 1500 mAh/g.
Diamond-like carbon coatings can increase retention capacity by 40% and cycle life by 400% for lithium based batteries.
To improve the stability of the lithium anode, several approaches to installing a protective layer have been suggested. Silicon is beginning to be looked at as an anode material because it can accommodate significantly more lithium ions, storing up to 10 times the electric charge, however this alloying between lithium and silicon results in significant volume expansion (ca. 400%), which causes catastrophic failure for the cell. Silicon has been used as an anode material but the insertion and extraction of
In addition to carbon- and silicon- based anode materials for lithium-ion batteries, high-entropy metal oxide materials are being developed. These conversion (rather than intercalation) materials comprise an alloy (or subnanometer mixed phases) of several metal oxides performing different functions. For example, Zn and Co can act as electroactive charge-storing species, Cu can provide an electronically conducting support phase and MgO can prevent pulverization.O. Marques, M. Walter, E. Timofeeva, and C. Segre, Batteries, 9 115 (2023). 10.3390/batteries9020115.
The same reaction was later proposed by Fong et al in 1990, where they theorized that the carbonate ion was reacting with the lithium to form lithium carbonate, which was then forming a passivating layer on the surface of the graphite. PC is no longer used in batteries today as the molecules can intercalate into the graphite layers and react with the lithium there to form propylene and acts to delaminate the graphite.
The insulating properties of the SEI allow the battery to reach more extreme voltage gaps without simply reducing the electrolyte. This ability of the SEI to improve the voltage window of batteries was discovered almost on accident, but plays a vital role in high voltage batteries today.
Electrolyte alternatives have also played a significant role, for example the lithium polymer battery. Polymer electrolytes are promising for minimizing the dendrite formation of lithium. Polymers are supposed to prevent short circuits and maintain conductivity.
The ions in the electrolyte diffuse because there are small changes in the electrolyte concentration. Linear diffusion is only considered here. The change in concentration c, as a function of time t and distance x, is
In this equation, D is the diffusion coefficient for the lithium ion. It has a value of in the electrolyte. The value for ε, the porosity of the electrolyte, is 0.724.
Batteries may be equipped with temperature sensors, heating/cooling systems, voltage regulator circuits, Tap changer, and charge-state monitors. These components address safety risks like overheating and .
Cells with a cylindrical shape are made in a characteristic "swiss roll" manner (known as a "jelly roll" in the US), which means it is a single long "sandwich" of the positive electrode, separator, negative electrode, and separator rolled into a single spool. The result is encased in a container. One advantage of cylindrical cells is faster production speed. One disadvantage can be a large radial temperature gradient at high discharge rates.
The absence of a case gives pouch cells the highest gravimetric energy density; however, many applications require containment to prevent expansion when their state of charge (SOC) level is high, and for general structural stability. Both rigid plastic and pouch-style cells are sometimes referred to as prismatic cells due to their rectangular shapes. Three basic battery types are used in 2020s-era electric vehicles: cylindrical cells (e.g., Tesla), prismatic pouch (e.g., from LG Corporation), and prismatic can cells (e.g., from LG, Samsung, Panasonic, and others).
Lithium-ion flow batteries have been demonstrated that suspend the cathode or anode material in an aqueous or organic solution.
As of 2014, the smallest Li-ion cell was pin-shaped with a diameter of 3.5 mm and a weight of 0.6 g, made by Panasonic. Panasonic unveils "smallest" pin-shaped lithium ion battery , Telecompaper, 6 October 2014 A coin cell form factor is available for LiCoO2 cells, usually designated with a "LiR" prefix.
More niche uses include backup power in telecommunications applications. Lithium-ion batteries are also frequently discussed as a potential option for grid energy storage, although as of 2020, they were not yet cost-competitive at scale.
The open-circuit voltage is higher than in aqueous battery (such as lead–acid, nickel–metal hydride and nickel–cadmium). Internal resistance increases with both cycling and age, although this depends strongly on the voltage and temperature the batteries are stored at. Rising internal resistance causes the voltage at the terminals to drop under load, which reduces the maximum current draw. Eventually, increasing resistance will leave the battery in a state such that it can no longer support the normal discharge currents requested of it without unacceptable voltage drop or overheating.
Batteries with a lithium iron phosphate positive and graphite negative electrodes have a nominal open-circuit voltage of 3.2 V and a typical charging voltage of 3.6 V. Lithium nickel manganese cobalt (NMC) oxide positives with graphite negatives have a 3.7 V nominal voltage with a 4.2 V maximum while charging. The charging procedure is performed at constant voltage with current-limiting circuitry (i.e., charging with constant current until a voltage of 4.2 V is reached in the cell and continuing with a constant voltage applied until the current drops close to zero). Typically, the charge is terminated at 3% of the initial charge current. In the past, lithium-ion batteries could not be fast-charged and needed at least two hours to fully charge. Current-generation cells can be fully charged in 45 minutes or less. In 2015 researchers demonstrated a small 600 mAh capacity battery charged to 68 percent capacity in two minutes and a 3,000 mAh battery charged to 48 percent capacity in five minutes. The latter battery has an energy density of 620 W·h/L. The device employed heteroatoms bonded to graphite molecules in the anode.
Performance of manufactured batteries has improved over time. For example, from 1991 to 2005 the energy capacity per price of lithium-ion batteries improved more than ten-fold, from 0.3 W·h per dollar to over 3 W·h per dollar. In the period from 2011 to 2017, progress has averaged 7.5% annually. Overall, between 1991 and 2018, prices for all types of lithium-ion cells (in dollars per kWh) fell approximately 97%. Over the same time period, energy density more than tripled. Efforts to increase energy density contributed significantly to cost reduction. Energy density can also be increased by improvements in the chemistry if the cell, for instance, by full or partial replacement of graphite with silicon. Silicon anodes enhanced with graphene nanotubes to eliminate the premature degradation of silicon open the door to reaching record-breaking battery energy density of up to 350 Wh/kg and lowering EV prices to be competitive with ICEs.
Differently sized cells of the same format (shape) with the same chemistry may have different energy densities. Jelly roll cells usually have a higher energy density than coin or prismatic cells of the same Ah, because of a tighter/compresses packing of the cell layers. Among cylindrical cells, those with a larger size have a larger energy density, albeit the exact value strongly depends on the thickness of the electrode layers. The disadvantage of large cells is decrease of the heat transfer from the cell to its surroundings.
| + !C rate !efficiency !estimated charge efficiency !estimated discharged efficiency | |||
| 0.2 | 86% | 93% | 92% |
| 0.4 | 82% | 92% | 90% |
| 0.6 | 81% | 91% | 89% |
| 0.8 | 77% | 90% | 86% |
| 1.0 | 75% | 89% | 85% |
| 1.2 | 73% | 89% | 83% |
Over their lifespan, batteries degrade gradually leading to reduced cyclable charge (a.k.a. Ah capacity) and increased resistance (the latter translates into a lower operating cell voltage)..
Several degradation processes occur in lithium-ion batteries, some during cycling, some during storage, and some all the time:. Degradation is strongly temperature-dependent: degradation at room temperature is minimal but increases for batteries stored or used in high temperature (usually > 35 °C) or low temperature (usually < 5 °C) environments. Also, battery life in room temperature is maximal. High charge levels also hasten capacity loss. Frequent charge to > 90% and discharge to < 10% may also hasten capacity loss. Keeping the li-ion battery status to about 60% to 80% can reduce the capacity loss.
In a study, scientists provided 3D imaging and model analysis to reveal main causes, mechanics, and potential mitigations of the problematic degradation of the batteries over . They found "particle cracking increases and contact loss between particles and carbon-binder domain are observed to correlate with the cell degradation" and indicates that "the reaction heterogeneity within the thick cathode caused by the unbalanced electron conduction is the main cause of the battery degradation over cycling".
The most common degradation mechanisms in lithium-ion batteries include:.
These are shown in the figure on the right. A change from one main degradation mechanism to another appears as a knee (slope change) in the capacity vs. cycle number plot.
Most studies of lithium-ion battery aging have been done at elevated (50–60 °C) temperatures in order to complete the experiments sooner. Under these storage conditions, fully charged nickel-cobalt-aluminum and lithium-iron phosphate cells lose ca. 20% of their cyclable charge in 1–2 years. It is believed that the aforementioned anode aging is the most important degradation pathway in these cases. On the other hand, manganese-based cathodes show a (ca. 20–50%) faster degradation under these conditions, probably due to the additional mechanism of Mn ion dissolution. At 25 °C the degradation of lithium-ion batteries seems to follow the same pathway(s) as the degradation at 50 °C, but with half the speed. In other words, based on the limited extrapolated experimental data, lithium-ion batteries are expected to lose irreversibly ca. 20% of their cyclable charge in 3–5 years or 1000–2000 cycles at 25 °C. Lithium-ion batteries with titanate anodes do not suffer from SEI growth, and last longer (>5000 cycles) than graphite anodes. However, in complete cells other degradation mechanisms (i.e. the dissolution of and the place exchange, decomposition of PVDF binder and particle detachment) show up after 1000–2000 days, and the use titanate anode does not improve full cell durability in practice.
Nowadays, all reputable manufacturers employ at least two safety devices in all their lithium-ion batteries of an 18650 format or larger: a current interrupt (CID) device and a positive temperature coefficient (PTC) device. The CID comprises two metal disks that make an electric contact with each other. When pressure inside the cell increases, the distance between the two disks increases too and they lose the electric contact with each other, thus terminating the electric current through the battery. The PTC device is made of an electrically conducting polymer. When the current through the PTC device increases, the polymer gets hot, and its electric resistance rises sharply, thus reducing the current through the battery.
Lithium-ion batteries have a flammable liquid electrolyte. A faulty battery can cause a serious Conflagration. Faulty chargers can affect the safety of the battery because they can destroy the battery's protection circuit. While charging at temperatures below 0 °C, the negative electrode of the cells gets plated with pure lithium, which can compromise the safety of the whole pack.
Short circuit a battery will cause the cell to overheat and possibly to catch fire. Smoke from thermal runaway in a Li-ion battery is both flammable and toxic. Batteries are tested according to the UL 9540A fire standard, and the TS-800 standard also tests fire propagation from one battery container to adjacent containers.
Around 2010, large lithium-ion batteries were introduced in place of other chemistries to power systems on some aircraft; , there had been at least four serious lithium-ion battery fires, or smoke, on the Boeing 787 passenger aircraft, introduced in 2011, which did not cause crashes but had the potential to do so.Topham, Gwyn (18 July 2013). "Heathrow fire on Boeing Dreamliner 'started in battery component'" . The Guardian. UPS Airlines Flight 6 crashed in Dubai after its payload of batteries spontaneously ignited.
To reduce fire hazards, research projects are intended to develop non-flammable electrolytes.
If overheated or overcharged, Li-ion batteries may suffer thermal runaway and cell rupture. During thermal runaway, internal degradation and Oxidisation processes can keep cell temperatures above 500 °C, with the possibility of igniting secondary combustibles, as well as leading to leakage, explosion or fire in extreme cases. (2025). 9781630810115, Artech House. ISBN 9781630810115 To reduce these risks, many lithium-ion cells (and battery packs) contain fail-safe circuitry that disconnects the battery when its voltage is outside the safe range of 3–4.2 V per cell, or when overcharged or discharged. Lithium battery packs, whether constructed by a vendor or the end-user, without effective battery management circuits are susceptible to these issues. Poorly designed or implemented battery management circuits also may cause problems; it is difficult to be certain that any particular battery management circuitry is properly implemented.
Other safety features are required in each cell:
These features are required because the negative electrode produces heat during use, while the positive electrode may produce oxygen. However, these additional devices occupy space inside the cells, add points of failure, and may irreversibly disable the cell when activated. Further, these features increase costs compared to nickel metal hydride batteries, which require only a hydrogen/oxygen recombination device and a back-up pressure valve. Contaminants inside the cells can defeat these safety devices. Also, these features can not be applied to all kinds of cells, e.g., prismatic high-current cells cannot be equipped with a vent or thermal interrupt. High-current cells must not produce excessive heat or oxygen, lest there be a failure, possibly violent. Instead, they must be equipped with internal thermal fuses which act before the anode and cathode reach their thermal limits.
Replacing the lithium cobalt oxide positive electrode material in lithium-ion batteries with a lithium metal phosphate such as lithium iron phosphate (LFP) improves cycle counts, shelf life and safety, but lowers capacity. As of 2006, these safer lithium-ion batteries were mainly used in and other large-capacity battery applications, where safety is critical. In 2016, an LFP-based energy storage system was chosen to be installed in Paiyun Lodge on Yu Shan (the highest lodge in Taiwan). As of June 2024, the system was still operating safely.
IATA estimates that over a billion lithium metal and lithium-ion cells are flown each year. Some kinds of lithium batteries may be prohibited aboard aircraft because of the fire hazard. Some postal administrations restrict air shipping (including EMS) of lithium and lithium-ion batteries, either separately or installed in equipment.
In the 1990s, the United States was the World's largest miner of lithium minerals, contributing to 1/3 of the total production. By 2010 Chile replaced the USA the leading miner, thanks to the development of lithium brines in Salar de Atacama. By 2024, Australia and China joined Chile as the top 3 miners.
Lithium mining takes place in North and South America, Asia, South Africa, Australia, and China. (2015). 9781782420989, Elsevier Science. ISBN 9781782420989
Cobalt for Li-ion batteries is largely mined in the Congo (see also Mining industry of the Democratic Republic of the Congo). Open-pit cobalt mining has led to deforestation and habitat destruction in the Democratic Republic of Congo.
Open-pit Nickel mine has led to environmental degradation and pollution in developing countries such as the Philippines and Indonesia. In 2024, nickel mining and processing was one of the main causes of deforestation in Indonesia.
Manufacturing a kg of Li-ion battery takes about 67 megajoule (MJ) of energy. The global warming potential of lithium-ion batteries manufacturing strongly depends on the energy source used in mining and manufacturing operations, and is difficult to estimate, but one 2019 study estimated 73 kg CO2e/kWh. Effective recycling can reduce the carbon footprint of the production significantly.
Accumulation of battery waste presents technical challenges and health hazards. Since the environmental impact of electric cars is heavily affected by the production of lithium-ion batteries, the development of efficient ways to repurpose waste is crucial. Recycling is a multi-step process, starting with the storage of batteries before disposal, followed by manual testing, disassembling, and finally the chemical separation of battery components. Re-use of the battery is preferred over complete recycling as there is less embodied energy in the process. As these batteries are a lot more reactive than classical vehicle waste like tire rubber, there are significant risks to stockpiling used batteries.
Once leached, the metals can be extracted through precipitation reactions controlled by changing the pH level of the solution. Cobalt, the most expensive metal, can then be recovered in the form of sulfate, oxalate, hydroxide, or carbonate. 75 More recently, recycling methods experiment with the direct reproduction of the cathode from the leached metals. In these procedures, concentrations of the various leached metals are premeasured to match the target cathode and then the cathodes are directly synthesized.
The main issues with this method, however, are the large volume of solvent required and the high cost of neutralization. Although it is easy to shred up the battery, mixing the cathode and anode at the beginning complicates the process, so they will also need to be separated. Unfortunately, the current design of batteries makes the process extremely complex and it is difficult to separate the metals in a closed-loop battery system. Shredding and dissolving may occur at different locations.
This method is extremely cost-effective for noncobalt-based batteries as the raw materials do not make up the bulk of the cost. Direct recycling avoids the time-consuming and expensive purification steps, which is great for low-cost cathodes such as LiMn2O4 and LiFePO4. For these cheaper cathodes, most of the cost, embedded energy, and carbon footprint is associated with the manufacturing rather than the raw material. It is experimentally shown that direct recycling can reproduce similar properties to pristine graphite.
The drawback of the method lies in the condition of the retired battery. In the case where the battery is relatively healthy, direct recycling can cheaply restore its properties. However, for batteries where the state of charge is low, direct recycling may not be worth the investment. The process must also be tailored to the specific cathode composition, and therefore the process must be configured to one type of battery at a time. Lastly, in a time with rapidly developing battery technology, the design of a battery today may no longer be desirable a decade from now, rendering direct recycling ineffective.
The recycling of the electrolytes, which consists 10-15 wt.% of the Li-ion battery, provides both an economic and environmental benefits. These benefits include the recovery of the valuable Li-based salts and the prevention of hazardous compounds, such as volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and carcinogens, being released into the environment.
Compared to electrode recycling, less focus is placed on recycling the electrolyte of Li-ion batteries which can be attributed to lower economic benefits and greater process challenges. Such challenges can include the difficulty associated with recycling different electrolyte compositions, removing side products accumulated from electrolyte decomposition during its runtime, and removal of electrolyte adsorbed onto the electrodes. Due to these challenges, current pyrometallurgical methods of Li-ion battery recycling forgo electrolyte recovery, releasing hazardous gases upon heating. However, due to high energy consumption and environmental impact, future recycling methods are being directed away from this approach.
Cobalt sourced from the Democratic Republic of the Congo is often mined by workers using hand tools with few safety precautions, resulting in frequent injuries and deaths. Pollution from these mines has exposed people to toxic chemicals that health officials believe to cause birth defects and breathing difficulties. Human rights activists have alleged, and investigative journalism reported confirmation,Crawford, Alex. Meet Dorsen, 8, who mines cobalt to make your smartphone work . Sky News UK. Retrieved on 2018-01-07. Are you holding a product of child labour right now? (Video) . Sky News UK (2017-02-28). Retrieved on 2018-01-07. that child labor is used in these mines.
A study of relationships between lithium extraction companies and indigenous peoples in Argentina indicated that the state may not have protected indigenous peoples' right to free prior and informed consent, and that extraction companies generally controlled community access to information and set the terms for discussion of the projects and benefit sharing.
Development of the Thacker Pass lithium mine in Nevada, USA has met with protests and lawsuits from several indigenous tribes who have said they were not provided free prior and informed consent and that the project threatens cultural and sacred sites. Links between resource extraction and missing and murdered indigenous women have also prompted local communities to express concerns that the project will create risks to indigenous women. Protestors have been occupying the site of the proposed mine since January, 2021.
Research areas for lithium-ion batteries include extending lifetime, increasing energy density, improving safety, reducing cost, and increasing charging speed, among others. Research has been under way in the area of non-flammable electrolytes as a pathway to increased safety based on the flammability and volatility of the organic solvents used in the typical electrolyte. Strategies include aqueous lithium-ion batteries, ceramic solid electrolytes, polymer electrolytes, ionic liquids, and heavily fluorinated systems.
One of the ways to improve batteries is to combine the various cathode materials. This allows researchers to improve on the qualities of a material, while limiting the negatives. One possibility is coating lithium nickel manganese oxide with lithium iron phosphate through resonant acoustic mixing. The resulting material benefits from an increase electrochemical performance and improved capacity retention. Similar work was done with iron (III) phosphate.
As it is now accepted that not only transition metals, but also anions in cathodes participate in redox activity necessary for Lithium insertion and removal, the design of cathode materials with diverse transition metal cations increasingly consider also oxygen redox reactions in lithium-ion battery cathodes and how these may enhance capacity beyond transition metal limitations, with computational studies using density functional theory helping to optimize materials while minimizing structural degradation. Advances in anionic redox understanding have led to stabilization strategies like surface fluorination, improving cycling stability and safety. (2025). 9783031473029 ISBN 9783031473029
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