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Nicosia, also known as Lefkosia and Lefkoşa, is the capital and largest city of Cyprus and is geographically located in Asia. It is the southeasternmost of all EU member states' capital cities.
Nicosia has been continuously inhabited for over 5,500 years and has been the capital of Cyprus since the 10th century. It is the last divided capital in Europe; three years after Cyprus gained independence from British rule in 1960, the Bloody Christmas conflict between Greek Cypriots and Turkish Cypriots triggered intercommunal violence, and Nicosia's Greek Cypriot and Turkish Cypriot communities segregated into its south and North Nicosia respectively in 1964. A decade later, Turkey invaded Cyprus following Greece's successful attempt to Enosis. The leaders of the takeover would later step down, but the dividing line running through Nicosia (and the rest of the island, interrupted only briefly by British military bases) became a demilitarised zone that remains under the control of Cyprus while heavily policed by the United Nations; it is now known as the United Nations Buffer Zone in Cyprus between the Republic of Cyprus, which is internationally recognised, and Northern Cyprus, which is recognised only by Turkey. The ongoing dispute between the two communities is known as the Cyprus problem.
Apart from its legislative and administrative functions, Nicosia has established itself as the island's financial capital and its main international business centre. In 2018, Nicosia was the 32nd richest city in the world in relative purchasing power. In the 2022 GaWC ranking, Nicosia was classified as a "Beta −" city ().
By late antiquity, early Christian sources were recording the location as Leuteon (Λευτεῶν, Leuteō̂n) and as Leucon (Λευκῶν, Leukō̂n), Leucotheon (Λευκοθέον, Leukothéon), Leucoi Theoi (Λευκοί Θεοί, Leukoí Theoí), and Leucopolis (Λευκούπολις, Leukoúpolis), incorporating forms of the Greek words for "white" (, leukós) or "populus" (, leúkē) and for "God" (, Theós), "Greek gods" (, theós), or "Greek goddesses" (, theá), with possible allusion to a supposed son of Ptolemy I Soter or to the sea goddess Leucothea. During the Byzantine Empire, the form Leucosia (Λευκουσία, Leukousía)usually parsed as intending "the white estate" ( , hē leukḗ ousía)became common; this developed into modern Greek Lefkosia (Λευκωσία, Lefkosía, ) and Turkish language Lefkoşa ().
The Latin language and English language name Nicosia appeared under the medieval Crusades Lusignan dynasty, around the same time the Cypriot port Limassol replaced its previous initial N with an L for similarly unknown reasons. Hill provides several other examples of interchanging /l/ and /n/ as far back as the Phoenician Cypriots, suggesting the exchange may have arisen from a variable native pronunciation. The name is also preserved as the Armenian Nikosia (Նիկոսիա) and the Cypriot Arabic Nikusiya.
The town also appears as Callinicesis (Καλλινικησις, Kallinikēsis, or Καλλινεικησις, Kallineikēsis) in some of the hagiographies concerning the saints Tryphillius and Saint Spyridon ().
The city-state of Ledra is similarly connected with the area of Nicosia, although the larger share of Mycenaean Greece ruins in the area are at the broad hill of Ayia Paraskevi or Leondari Vounò southeast of central Nicosia. Ledra is reported as one of the twelve kingdoms of ancient Cyprus built by Achaeans after the end of the Trojan War. The kingdom was quickly destroyed. The Cypriot vassal state transcribed as "Lidir" in a 672 BC Assyrian text is generally identified with the remains which have been found nearer to the modern city. Its ruler Onasagoras was recorded paying tribute to the Assyrian Empire king Esarhaddon.
In the 4th century, the town was the seat of a bishopric under the name Ledron, Leuteon, or Leucotheon. Its bishop St Tryphillius was a student of Saint Spyridon. Archaeological evidence indicates that the town regained much of its earlier significance in the early Christian period, and the presence of two or three with opus sectile decorations, along with marbles decorated with high relief indicate the presence of a relatively prosperous and sophisticated Christian society.Demetrios and Pallides, p. 59.
On his way to the Holy Land during the Third Crusade in 1187, Richard I of England's fleet was plagued by storms, making him to stop first at Crete and then at Rhodes. Three ships continued on, one of which was carrying Joan of England, Queen of Sicily and Berengaria of Navarre, Richard's bride-to-be. Two of the ships were wrecked off Cyprus, but the ship bearing Joan and Berengaria made it safely to Limassol. Joan refused to come ashore, fearing she would be captured and held hostage by Isaac Komnenos of Cyprus, who hated all Franks. Her ship sat at anchor for a full week before Richard finally arrived on 8 May. Outraged at the treatment of his sister and his future bride, Richard invaded. Richard laid siege to Nicosia, finally met and defeated Isaac Komnenos at Tremetousia and became ruler of the island, but sold it to the Knights Templar.
The Frankish rule of Cyprus started from 1192 and lasted until 1489. During this time, Nicosia was the capital of the medieval Kingdom of Cyprus, the seat of Lusignan kings, the Latin Church and the Frankish administration of the island. During the Frankish rule, the walls of the city were built along with many other palaces and buildings, including the gothic St. Sophia Cathedral. The tombs of the Lusignan kings can be found there.
In 1373/4, Nicosia was occupied and ravaged by the Republic of Genoa and in 1426 from the Mamluk Sultanate.
In 1489, when Cyprus came under the rule of the Republic of Venice, Nicosia became their administrative centre and the seat of the Republic. The Venetian Governors saw it as a necessity for all the cities of Cyprus to be fortified due to the Ottoman threat. In 1567 Venetians built the new fortifications of Nicosia, which are well-preserved still to this day, demolishing the old walls built by the Franks as well as other important buildings of the Frankish era including the King's Palace, other private palaces and churches and monasteries of both Orthodox and Latin Christians. The new walls took the shape of a star with eleven bastions. The design of the bastion is more suitable for artillery and a better control for the defenders. The walls have three gates, to the North Kyrenia Gate, to the west Paphos Gate and to the east Famagusta Gate. The river Pedieos used to flow through the Venetian walled city. In 1567 it was later diverted outside onto the newly built moat for strategic reasons, due to the expected Ottoman attack.
Nicosia was the seat of the Pasha, the Greek Archbishop, the Dragoman and the Qadi. The Palazzo del Governo of Venetian times became the seat of the Pasha, the governor of Cyprus, and the building was renamed as the Konak or Seraglio (Saray). The square outside was known as Seraglio Square or Sarayonu (literally front of the Saray), as it is known to the present day. The saray was demolished in 1904 and the present block of Government Offices built on the site.A description of the historic monuments of Cyprus. Studies in the archaeology and architecture of the island, by George Jeffery, Architect, 1918
When the newly settled Turkish population arrived they generally lived in the north of the old riverbed. Greek Cypriots remained concentrated in the south, where the Archbishopric of the Orthodox Church was built. Other ethnic minority groups such as the Armenians and Latins came to be settled near the western entry into the city at Paphos Gate.
The names of the 12 quarters into which Nicosia was originally divided at the time of the Ottoman Conquest are said to be derived from the 12 generals in command of divisions of the Ottoman army at the time. Each general being posted to a quarter, that quarter (with two exceptions) was known by his name as follows:
The names of the generals in command of the last two-quarters have been lost:
Later the number of neighborhoods was increased to 24. Each neighborhood was organized around a mosque or a church, where mainly the respective Muslim and Christian communities lived."Coexistence in the Disappeared Mixed Neighbourhoods of Nicosia", by Ahmet An (Paper read at the conference, "Nicosia: The Last Divided Capital in Europe", organized by the London Metropolitan University on 20 June 2011)
The old Ottoman administrative headquarters (the Saray) was replaced in 1904 by a new building containing Law Courts, the Land Registry, and the Forestry, Customs, and Nicosia Commissioner's Offices. Adjacent was the Nicosia Police headquarters, while opposite were the General Post Office and the Telegraph Office.See map drawn in 1952 published in "Romantic Cyprus", by Kevork Keshishian, 1958 edition A Venetian Column, previously in a fenced courtyard near the Saray,"Levkosia, the capital of Cyprus" by Archduke Louis Salvator, 1881 was restored on a new site in the summer of 1915 in the middle of Saray Square. The Nicosia column was presumably erected in compliment to the reigning Doge Francesco Donati about the year 1550.
Just after the British Occupation a Municipal Council was constituted in Nicosia in 1882 for the general administration of public affairs within the city and for a certain area without the walls, under the presidency of a Mayor. The first municipal offices were in Municipality Square (now the central municipal market), but in 1944 the offices were transferred temporarily to the d'Avila bastion and in 1952 this was made permanent with a decision to renovate the building. Municipality web site, section on Municipal Building retrieved August 2013
In 1923 the municipal limits were extended further (see map) and this new area was divided among several of the existing intramural neighborhoods.Order No. 397 published in Cyprus Gazette No. 1597, 4 August 1923 In 1938 the boundary was extended to the present limits in the west and to the boundaries of Ayii Omoloyites, Palouriotissa, Kaimakli and Omorfita.Cyprus Gazette No. 2676. 23 September 1938, Supplement No.3:The Municipal Corporations Laws, 1930 to 1938 – Limits of the Municipal Corporation of Nicosia In 1944 the village authority of Ayii Omoloyites was absorbed, then, shortly after independence, Palouriotissa, Kaimakli and Omorfita were annexed to the city in 1968.Nicosia Capital of Cyprus by Kevork Keshishian, pub 1978
Nicosia International Airport was opened in 1947. It remained the location for the Air Station until its abandonment in 1974.
In 1955 an armed struggle against British rule began aiming to unite the island with Greece, Enosis. The struggle was led by EOKA, a Greek Cypriot nationalist military resistance organization, and supported by the vast majority of Greek Cypriots. The unification with Greece failed and instead the independence of Cyprus was declared in 1960. During the period of the struggle, Nicosia was the scene of violent protests against British rule.
On 15 July 1974, there was an attempted coup d'état led by the Greek military junta to unite the island with Greece. The coup ousted president Makarios III and replaced him with pro-enosis nationalist Nikos Sampson.
On 20 July 1974, the coup d'état precipitated the invasion of the island by the Turkish army. The operation included two phases. The second phase of the Turkish invasion was performed on 14 August 1974, where the Turkish army advanced their positions, eventually capturing a total of 37% of Cypriot territory including the northern part of Nicosia. The fighting left the island with a massive refugee problem on both sides.
On 13 February 1975, the Turkish Cypriot community declared the Turkish Federated State of Cyprus in the area occupied by Turkish forces.Malcolm Nathan Shaw, International Law, Cambridge University Press, 2003, , p. 212. On 15 November 1983, Turkish Cypriots proclaimed their independence as the Northern Cyprus, that is recognized only by Turkey and seen by the international community as a part of the Cyprus but not under its effective control.
On 23 April 2003, the Ledra Palace crossing was opened through the Green Line, the first time that crossing was allowed since 1974. This was followed by the opening of Ayios Dometios/Metehan crossing point on 9 May 2003. On 3 April 2008, the Ledra Street crossing was also reopened.
From 30 October 2016 and onwards, Nicosia became the only capital city in the world that had two time zones, after the parliament of the de facto Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus abolished standard time and decided that Northern Cyprus remains at year-round, following Turkey's example. The following year, due to criticism from the Turkish Cypriot public in the north, the Turkish Cypriot government decided to go back to standard time, following the rest of Europe.
To the east of Ledra Street, Faneromeni Square was the centre of Nicosia before 1974. It hosts a number of historical buildings and monuments including Faneromeni Church, Faneromeni School, Faneromeni Library and the Marble Mausoleum. Faneromeni Church, is a church built in 1872 in the stead of another church located at the same site, constructed with the remains of La Cava castle and a convent. There rest the archbishop and the other bishops who were executed by the Ottomans in the Saray Square during the 1821 revolt. The Palace of the Archbishop can be found at Archbishop Kyprianos Square. Although it seems very old, it is a wonderful imitation of typical Venetian style, built in 1956. Next to the palace is the late Gothic St. John's Cathedral (1665) with picturesque frescos. The square leads to Onasagorou Street, another busy shopping street in the historical centre.
The walls surrounding the old city have three gates. In The Kyrenia Gate which was responsible to the transport to the north, and especially Kyrenia, the Famagusta Gate which was responsible for the transport from Famagusta, Larnaca and Limassol and Karpasia, and the Paphos Gate for transport to the west and especially Paphos. All three gates are well-preserved,Keshishian, Kevork K. (1978). Nicosia: Capital of Cyprus Then and Now, pp. 78–83, The Mouflon Book and Art Centre. with Famagusta gate functioning as a venue for art exhibitions and concerts. The historic centre is clearly present inside the walls, but the modern city has grown beyond.
Presently, the main square of the city is Eleftheria (Freedom) Square, with the city hall, the post office and the library. The square, which has been redesigned by Zaha Hadid Architects and was delivered to the public in 2021, connects the old city with the new city where one can find the main shopping streets such as the prestigious Stasikratous Street, Themistokli Dervi Avenue and Makariou Avenue.
Nicosia is also known for its fine museums. The Archbishop's Palace contains a Byzantine museum containing the largest collection of religious icons on the island. Leventio Museum is the only historical museum of Nicosia and revives the old ways of life in the capital from ancient times up to our days. Other interesting museums include the Folk Art Museum, National Struggle Museum (witnessing the EOKA in the 1950s), Cyprus Ethnological Museum (House of Dragoman Hadjigeorgakis Kornesios, 18th century) and the Handicrafts centre.
Nicosia also hosts an Armenian archbishopric, a small Buddhist temple, a Maronite archbishopric, and a Roman Catholic church.
Next to the Ledra Street checkpoint is the Arasta area. The area was pedestrianized in 2013 and is home to a network of historic shopping streets, reflecting an eastern shopping tradition with food and traditional items. Nearby Büyük Han, the largest caravanserai in the island and considered to be one of the finest buildings in Cyprus, was built in 1572 by the Ottoman Empire and functions as a cultural centre. To the west of the Girne Avenue lies the Samanbahçe neighborhood, built in the 19th century by the government, considered to be the first example of social housing in the island. Still a residential area, the neighborhood is considered to be one of the best representations of the Cypriot culture. Another central point in the walled city is the Selimiye Mosque, originally built as the St. Sophia Cathedral. The mosque is the chief religious centre in Northern Cyprus. It was built between 1209 and 1228 by the Latin Church of Cyprus, in a Gothic style resembling French cathedrals. Next to the mosque is the Bedesten, a large Greek church in the Byzantine and Gothic styles, built in the 14th century. It was used as a marketplace in the Ottoman era. Today, it is used as a cultural centre where various cultural activities such as concerts and festivals take place.
The quarters of Nicosia outside the walled city are more spacious than the walled city, with wider roads and junctions. These areas are characterized by multi-floor concrete buildings. In the outskirts of the city, a number large and imposing villas have been built that belong to the middle and upper-classes. The Dereboyu Avenue serves as the modern heart of the northern part and is its centre of entertainment.
The population of the conurbation is 300,000 (2011 census, plus Turkish Cypriot administered census of 2006) of which 100,000 live within the Nicosia municipal area. Because Nicosia municipality has separate communal municipal administrations, the population of Strovolos (67,904 (2011 Census)) is actually the largest of all the local authorities in Greater Nicosia.
Within Nicosia municipality, most of the population resides in the more recently annexed outlying areas of Kaimakli, Pallouriotissa, Omorfita and Ayii Omoloyites.
There is no metropolitan authority as such for Greater Nicosia and various roles, responsibilities and functions for the wider area are undertaken by the Nicosia District administration, bodies such as the Nicosia Water Board and, to some extent, Nicosia municipality.
The Nicosia Water Board supplies water to the following municipalities: Nicosia, Strovolos, Aglandjia, Engomi, Ay. Dometios, Latsia, Geri and Tseri. The board consists of three persons nominated by the Council of each municipality, plus three members appointed by the government, who are usually the District Officer of Nicosia District, who chairs the Board, the Accountant General and the Director of the Water Department. The board also supply Anthoupolis and Ergates, for whom the government provide representatives. Thus the board is in the majority controlled by the municipalities of Greater Nicosia in providing this vital local government service. Official web site of the Nicosia Water Board (extract 20 May 2013)
The Nicosia Sewerage Board, is likewise majority controlled by the municipalities of Greater Nicosia. It is chaired ex officio by the Mayor of Nicosia and consists of members chosen by the municipalities of Nicosia (6 members), Strovolos (5 members),
Aglandjia (2 members),
Lakatamia (2 members),
Ay. Dometios (2 members),
Engomi (2 members),
Latsia (1 member).
The sewage treatment plant is at Mia Milia. The Nicosia Sewerage System serves a population of approximately 140,000 and an area of . Approximately 30% of the influent is contributed by the Turkish Cypriot Side. Official web site of the Nicosia Sewerage Board (extract 20 May 2013)
Public transport is not controlled by the local authorities, but comes under the Nicosia District administration, which is an arm of the Ministry of the Interior. Transport services (primarily bus and taxi) are provided by private operators such as OSEL. In late 2019 the contract for providing transport services in the district of Nicosia was awarded via tender to a private consortium which was expected to take over the system on 5 July 2020.
The municipality of Strovolos, established in 1986, is the second largest municipal authority in Cyprus in terms of population after Limassol and encompasses the southern suburbs of the capital immediately adjacent to Nicosia municipality. Lakatamia, Latsia, Geri and Aglandjia are other separate municipalities in the Nicosia metropolitan area.
The town of Gönyeli is now conurbated with the northern suburbs. Previously a village authority, it now functions as a municipality Gonyeli Municipal web site August 2013 within the same areaThe authority has the population, economic viability and consent of the (original) inhabitants prescribed in the Municipalities Law (see Law 11/1985), without having been formally recognized as a municipality under that law. See also www.prio-cyprus-displacement.net/default_print.asp?id=300 retrieved August 2013 The suburbs immediately to the north of the city have not organized into municipalities. The village authority of Hamitköy (also known as Hamid Mandres) is highly urbanized and was included within the borders of Nicosia Turkish Municipality as a Nicosia neighborhood headed by a muhtar. Ortakioi Village authority has similarly been redefined as a neighborhood of Nicosia Turkish Municipality.
The archeparchy at the end of 2013 out of a population of 838,897 people had 10,400 baptized, corresponding to 1.2% of the total. Its territory is divided into 12 parishes.
Our Lady of Grace Cathedral is the main Maronite church of the city of Nicosia, in Cyprus, and is the cathedral of the Maronite Catholic Archeparchy of Cyprus.
The first cathedral was dedicated to St. John, but during the Ottoman occupation it was turned into a mosque. The Lebanese Maronite community erected the church of Santa Croce, later entrusted to the Franciscans, and the current church of Our Lady of Grace is near to the Franciscan church. In 1960, the seat of the vicarage and the surrounding buildings were built.
On 6 June 2010 Pope Benedict XVI, the first pope to make an apostolic trip to the island, visited the cathedral of Nicosia.
There was also a small Armenian Evangelical church, located on Mahmoud Pasha Street, in the Turkish-occupied part of the walled city of Nicosia—behind the old American Academy building, near the Arabahmet Mosque. Prior to its erection, Armenian Evangelicals used to worship God at the Reformed Presbyterian Church on Apostolos Varnavas Street, opposite the old Powerhouse and behind the building of the Holy Archbishopric of Cyprus. The church - a vision already since the early 1930s - was eventually built thanks to the initiative of pastor Yohanna Der Megerditchian, with the financial contribution of the Reformed Presbyterian Church and the Armenian Evangelical faithful; its architect was Dickran H. Davidian. Its foundation stone was laid on 28 July 1946 by pastor Yohanna Der Megerditchian, who dedicated it on 1 July 1947. On the lower part of the right wall to the side of the entrance, there is an inscription in Armenian.
The first imam of the mosque was Moravizade Ahmet Efendi, who hailed from the Morea province of the Ottoman Empire. All imams maintained the tradition of climbing the stairs to the minbar before Friday sermons while leaning on a sword used during the conquest of Nicosia to signify that Nicosia was captured by conquest.
Following its conversion, the mosque became the property of the Sultan Selim Foundation, which was responsible for maintaining it. Other donors formed a number of foundations to help with the maintenance. Okçuzade Mehmed Paşa, a governor of Cyprus in the 16th century, donated a shop to provide income for the Sultan Selim Foundation; other donations include estates in the countryside and other shops. The foundation employed trustees ( mütevelli) to look after the funds and transferred 40,000 akçe annually to Medina in late 16th century. During the Ottoman period, it was the largest mosque in the whole island, and was used weekly by the Ottoman governor, administrators and elite for the Friday prayers. In the late 18th century, a large procession that consisted of the leading officials in the front on horseback, followed by lower-ranking officials on foot, came to the mosque every Friday.
Formerly, the site of the mosque was occupied by the Augustinian Church of Saint Mary, which dated back to the 14th century. During the Ottoman-Venetian War of 1570-73, the church was first heavily damaged during the siege of Nicosia in 1570, and was eventually levelled after the war.
After the Turkish conquest of Cyprus, Lala Mustafa Pasha, the Ottoman commander, ordered a mosque to be built on the site of the former church, based on a popular belief that Umar, second caliph of Islam, was buried at this site in 7th century.
According to Turkish Cypriot folklore, the Ömeriye Mosque is the first mosque where Turkish people prayed on the island following its conquest in 1571.
Art galleries in Nicosia include the Leventis Gallery, which hosts over 800 paintings from Cypriot, Greek or European artists.
Nicosia offers a wide variety of musical and theatrical events, organized either by the municipality or independent organizations. Halls and theaters used for this purpose include:
Nicosia hosted the Miss Universe 2000 pageant.
In June 2011, Nicosia launched a failed campaign to become the European Capital of Culture for 2017.
Nicosia is also home to one of the largest historic Armenian schools, the Melkonian Educational Institute established in 1926 which operated until 2005. The Melkonian Institution was created as an orphanage in the aftermath of the Armenian genocide of 1915–1923.
In the northern part, the company of LETTAŞ provides this service.
Ercan International Airport is away from Nicosia. Flights to the airport are banned internationally due to the ongoing Cyprus problem. Non-stop flights only take place from Turkey, and all planes that fly to Northern Cyprus from other countries have to stop over in Turkey. The Government of the Republic of Cyprus considers the use of Ercan Airport to enter or exit the island illegal, and could result in facing criminal charges when entering (or exiting) the Republic.
Many taxi companies operate in Nicosia. Fares are regulated by law and taxi drivers are obliged to use a taximeter.
Nicosia is also the home for many clubs for basketball, team handball and other sports. APOEL and Omonia have basketball and volleyball sections and Keravnos is one of the major basketball teams on the island. The Gymnastic Club Pancypria (GSP), the owner of the Neo GSP Stadium, is one of the major athletics clubs on the island. Also, all teams in the Futsal First Division are from Nicosia. In addition, two handball teams, European University and SPE Strovolou, are located in Nicosia.
Nicosia has some of the biggest venues on the island; the Neo GSP Stadium, with a capacity of 23,400, is the home for the national team, APOEL, Olympiakos and AC Omonia. Makario Stadium has a capacity of 16,000. In the north, the Nicosia Atatürk Stadium has a capacity of 28,000.
The Eleftheria Indoor Hall is the biggest basketball stadium in Cyprus, with a capacity of 6,500 seats, and is the home for the national team, APOEL and AC Omonia. The Lefkotheo is the volleyball stadium for APOEL and Omonia.
The Nicosia Marathon took place in 2010 and 2012, organized by Athanasios Ktorides Foundation, and attracted more than 7,000 participants.
Nicosia hosted the 2000 ISSF World Cup Final shotgun shooting events. Also, the city hosted two basketball events; the European Saporta Cup in 1997 and the 2005 FIBA Europe All-Star Game in the Eleftheria Indoor Hall. Another event that was hosted in Nicosia was the Games of the Small States of Europe in 1989 and 2009.
(2025). 9781576079195, ABC CLIO. ISBN 9781576079195 (1997). 9781575065076, Eisenbrauns. ISBN 9781575065076
History
Prehistoric Nicosia
Nicosia has been in continuous habitation since around near the beginning of the Bronze Age, when the first inhabitants settled in the fertile plain of Mesaoria.
Ancient Nicosia
By 330 BC, Ledra was recorded to be a small unimportant town.World and its Peoples: Greece and the Eastern Balkans. Marshall Cavendish, 2010. It is thought that the settlement was economically and politically dependent on the nearby town of Chytri. The main activity of the town inhabitants was farming. During this era, Ledra did not have the huge growth that the other Cypriot coastal towns had, which was primarily based on trade. Some sources record that it was restored and improved by Leucos, son of Ptolemy I Soter of Ptolemaid Egypt around .. although Hill considered this an early modern "fancy" based solely on pseudoetymological speculations.
Medieval Nicosia
After the destruction of Cyprus's capital Salamis by Arab raids in 647, along with extensive damage to other coastal settlements, the economy of the island became much more inward-looking and inland towns gained relative significance. Nicosia benefited from this and functioned as an outlet of the agricultural products from its hinterland, the Mesaoria plain. It further was at an advantageous position due to its ample water supply. As such, the town developed enough for the Byzantine Empire to choose Nicosia as the capital of the island around 965, when the Byzantine navy restored full Byzantine control over the island and it was organized as a theme of the empire.Papacostas 2012, p. 103. The Byzantines moved the island's administration seat to Nicosia primarily for security reasons as coastal towns were often suffering from raids. From that point on it has remained as the capital of Cyprus and was the seat of the Byzantine governor of Cyprus. The last such governor was Isaac Komnenos, who declared himself emperor on the island and ruled it from 1183 to 1191. Testimony as late as 1211 indicates that Nicosia was not a walled city at that point and thus that the Byzantines did not build a city wall, thinking that the city's inland location would be sufficient for defense purposes. The Byzantines did, however, build a relatively weak fort within the city.Papacostas 2012, pp. 83–84. The economy under Byzantine rule consisted mostly of the trading of agricultural goods, but the town also produced luxury items and metalware due to the presence of the imperial administration.Papacostas 2012, pp. 99–100.
Ottoman rule
On 1 July 1570, the city came under the rule of the Ottoman Empire. On 22 July, Piyale Pasha having captured Paphos, Limassol and Larnaca marched his army towards Nicosia and laid siege to the city. The city managed to last 40 days under siege until its fall on 9 September 1570. The story of the Cypriot martyr Arnaude de Rocas dates from the fall of Nicosia. Some 20,000 residents died during the siege and every church, public building, and palace was looted. Nicosia had an estimated population of 21,000 before the Ottoman conquest, and based on the Ottoman census data of 1572, the population had been reduced to 1,100–1,200. The devastation of the city was so extensive that for the few years after the conquest, a number of villages in the island had a larger population than Nicosia. The main Latin churches were converted into mosques, such as the conversion of the Saint Sophia Cathedral.
British rule
Nicosia came under the rule of British Empire on 5 July 1878 in consequence of the Cyprus Convention, in exchange for its support of the Ottoman Empire during the Congress of Berlin.
Independence and division
In 1960, Nicosia became the capital of the Cyprus, a state established by the Greek and Turkish Cypriots. In 1963, the Greek Cypriot side proposed amendments to the constitution, which were rejected by the Turkish Cypriot community. During the aftermath of this crisis, on 21 December 1963, intercommunal violence broke out between Greek and Turkish Cypriots. Nicosia was divided into Greek and Turkish Cypriot quarters with the Green Line, named after the color of the pen used by the United Nations officer to draw the line on a map of the city. This resulted in Turkish Cypriots withdrawing from the government, and following more intercommunal violence in 1964, a number of Turkish Cypriots moved to the Turkish quarter of Nicosia, causing serious overcrowding.
Geography
Climate
Being in the rain shadow of the Troodos Mountains, Nicosia has a hot semi-arid climate (Köppen climate classification BSh) due to its low annual precipitation totals and average annual temperature.//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/66/World_K%C3%B6ppen_Map.jpg The city experiences long, hot to sweltering, dry summers, and mild winters, with most of the rainfall occurring in winter. Winter precipitation is occasionally accompanied by Ice pellets but rarely by snow. The accumulation of snow is particularly rare (last events occurred in 1950, 1974, 1997, 2015 and 2022). There is occasionally light frost during the winter nights. On 4 September 2020, Nicosia recorded a temperature of , which is the highest temperature to have ever been recorded in Cyprus. On 25 February 2025, Nicosia recorded which is the lowest temperature in the city since 1983 when records began for the Athalassa meteorological station.
Cityscape
, Nicosia holds the unenviable position of being the capital city with the fewest green spaces in Europe, with only three per cent of the city covered with trees.
South of the Green Line
Ledra Street is in the middle of the walled city. The street has historically been the busiest shopping street of the capital and adjacent streets lead to the most lively part of the old city with narrow streets, boutiques, bars and art-cafés. The street today is a historic monument on its own, covering about in length and connects the south and north parts of the old city. During the EOKA that ran from 1955 to 1959, the street acquired the informal nickname Ledra Street in reference to the frequent targeting of the British colonialists by nationalist fighters along its course. In 1963, during the outbreak of hostilities between the Greek and Turkish Cypriot communities, following the announcement of amendments to the Cypriot Constitution, Turkish Cypriots withdrew to the northern part of Nicosia which became one of the many Turkish Cypriot enclaves which existed throughout the island. Various streets which ran between the northern and southern part of the city, including Ledra Street, were blockaded. During the Turkish army invasion of Cyprus in 1974, Turkish troops occupied northern Nicosia (as well as the northern part of Cyprus). A buffer zone was established across the island along the ceasefire line to separate the northern Turkish controlled part of the island, and the south. The buffer zone runs through Ledra Street. After many failed attempts on reaching agreement between the two communities, Ledra Street was reopened on 3 April 2008.
North of the Green Line
At the centre of the walled city lies the Sarayönü Square. The square has been dubbed as "the heart of Nicosia" and historically has been the cultural centre of the Turkish Cypriot community. In the middle of the square stands the Venetian Column, known simply as "the Obelisk" ("Dikiltaş") to the locals and symbolic of the country's government. The column was brought from the ancient city of Salamis by the Venetians in 1550. The Girne Avenue connects Sarayönü to the Kyrenia Gate and the İnönü Square in front of it. The avenue has been described as "the symbol of the walled city", and is filled with numerous shops and restaurants.
Politics and administration
Governance of the metropolitan area
Nicosia is administered by several municipalities. In the centre is the city municipality of Nicosia itself (see below). Other municipalities are Strovolos, Lakatamia, Latsia, Aglandjia, Engomi, Agios Dhometios and the newly formed () Yeri & Tseri.
Nicosia Municipality
The Nicosia Municipality is responsible for all the municipal duties within the walled city and the immediately adjacent areas. The Constitution states that various main government buildings and headquarters must be situated within the Nicosia municipal boundaries.e.g. Constitution of Cyprus Article 153, s2 – "The seat of the High Court shall be in the capital of the Republic." However separate municipalities are prescribed by the constitution for in the five largest towns, including Nicosia,Constitution of Cyprus Article 173 – "Separate municipalities shall be created in the five largest towns of the Republic, that is to say, Nicosia, Limassol, Famagusta, Larnaca and Paphos by the Turkish inhabitants thereof" and in the case of Nicosia the separate administration was established in 1958. The Turkish Municipal Committees (Temporary Provisions) Law, 1959Law 1959 c3 established a municipal authority run by a "Turkish Municipal Committee", defined as "the body of persons set up on or after the first day of July, 1958, in the towns of Nicosia, Limassol, Famagusta, Larnaca and Paphos by the Turkish inhabitants thereof for the purpose of performing municipal functions within the municipal limits of such towns".The "Nicosia Turkish Municipality", founded in 1958, carries out municipal duties in the northern and north-western part of city.Phoebe Koundouri, Water Resources Allocation: Policy and Socioeconomic Issues in Cyprus, p. 70. The remaining areas, in the south and east of the city, are administered by Nicosia Municipality.
Nicosia Turkish Municipality
The first attempt to establish a Nicosia Turkish Municipality was made in 1958. In October 1959, the British Colonial Administration passed the Turkish Municipality Committees law. In 1960 with the declaration of independence of Cyprus, the Constitution of the Republic of Cyprus gave Turkish Cypriots the right to establish their own municipality.Phoebe Koundouri, Water Resources Allocation: Policy and Socioeconomic Issues in Cyprus, Springer, 2010, p. 70. The Middle East: a survey and directory of the countries of the Middle East, Europa Publications., 1966, p. 171. As negotiations between the two sides to establish separate municipalities failed in 1962, implementing legislation was never passed. Since the complete division of Nicosia following the Turkish Invasion in 1974, the Nicosia Turkish Municipality has become the de facto local authority of northern Nicosia. The Nicosia Turkish Municipality is a member of the Union of Cyprus Turkish Municipalities. The mayor is Mehmet Harmancı from the Communal Democracy Party.
Other municipalities in Greater Nicosia
Until 1986 there were no suburban municipalities. Then, following the procedures in the Municipal Law 111/1985, Strovolos, Engomi, Ay. Dometios, Aglandjia, Latsia and Lakatamia were erected into municipalities. Each municipal council has the number of members described in the Municipal Law 111/1985 depending on the population figures. All members of the council are elected directly by the people for a period of 5 years.
Administrative divisions and demographics
Nicosia within the city limits is divided into 29 administrative units, according to the latest census. This unit is termed in English as quarter, neighborhood, parish, enoria or mahalla. These units are: Ayios Andreas (formerly Tophane), Trypiotis, Nebethane, Tabakhane, Phaneromeni, Ayios Savvas, Omerie, Ayios Antonios (St. Anthony), St. John, Taht-el-kale, Chrysaliniotissa, Ayios Kassianos (Kafesli), Kaimakli, Pallouriotissa, Agioi Omologites, Arab Ahmet, Yeni Jami, Omorfita, Ibrahim Pasha, Mahmut Pasha, Abu Kavouk, St. Luke, Abdi Chavush, Iplik Pazar and Korkut Effendi, Ayia Sophia, Haydar Pasha, Karamanzade,Census of Cyprus (available from Statistical Service, Nicosia). Document: Population – Place of Residence, 2011, Table C. Municipality/Community, Quarter and Street Index published by Ministry of Information (CILIS_streets_022011) and Yenişehir/Neapolis.Official Gazette of the Republic No. 4341 and dated 25.01.2010
Demographics
Religion
Historically Nicosia is a melting pot harmonizing multiple religious establishments, denominations, churches, mosques, synagogues, etc.
Traditionally Nicosia hosts Greek Orthodox churches, Armenian Apostolic churches, Latin Catholic, Maronite Catholic, Anglican churches, Evangelical churches as well as mosques and synagogues.
Armenian Apostolic Church
One of the oldest Armenian churches known as the Benedictine Abbey of Our Lady of Tyre, was founded in the 13th century as a principal convent following the fall of Jerusalem. In 1308, the Lusignan king, Henry II of Jerusalem, repaired the church after it was destroyed by an earthquake. As many of the nuns were Armenian in origin, it came under the Armenian Church before 1504.
Since 1963, the church has been located in North Nicosia, under Turkish Cypriot administration. The church suffered the collapse of some parts and a great deterioration of condition till 2007, when the restoration work began.
The renovation was completed in 2013 and won the EU Prize For Cultural Heritage (Europa Nostra Award) in 2015.
With the help of the World Council of Churches, the Church of Westphalia, the Cyprus government and the faithful, a new church was built in Strovolos, also called "Sourp Asdvadzadzin". Its foundation stone was laid on 25 September 1976 by Archbishop Makarios III and Archbishop Nerses Pakhdigian. It was officially inaugurated on 22 November 1981 by Catholicos of Cilicia Khoren I and Coadjutor Catholicos of Cilicia Karekin II, in the presence of Archbishop Chrysostomos I, Bishop Zareh Aznavorian and Representative Dr. Antranik L. Ashdjian.
Maronite Catholic Church
The Maronite community is a traditional community in Nicosia. The archeparchy extends its jurisdiction over all the faithful Maronites of the island of Cyprus. Its arcieparchial seat is the city of Nicosia, where is located the Our Lady of Grace Cathedral (Nicosia).
Anglican Church
The church of St. Paul was built in 1893 when Cyprus was a protectorate of the British Empire. The influence of politics on architecture is evident by the structural elements of the building, which is reminiscent of an English parish church. The Christian church today is part of the Diocese of Cyprus and the Gulf.
Greek Evangelical Church
The Greek Evangelical Church of Nicosia is a relatively modern architecture serving the local Protestant community. Along with special hours dedicated to services of the Greek Evangelical community, it serves as a worship centre of local Protestants of other nationalities, such as Armenian, American, Romanian, Korean, Chinese, etc. It is located on Gladstone Street.
Armenian Evangelical Church
The first Armenian Evangelicals in Cyprus came after the arrival of the United Kingdom in July 1878. As they were not committed, and very few in number, they quickly became associated with the Mother Church (Armenian Apostolic Church), such as Apisoghom Utidjian, the official state documents translator and the son of Stepan Utidjian, one of the original founders of the Armenian Evangelical Church, who served as chairman of the Nicosia parish council for 30 years. With the influx of more Protestants, Armenian Evangelicals became affiliated with the Reformed Presbyterian Church as early as 1887. Although the main centres were Nicosia and Larnaca, gatherings were occasionally held in Limassol, Famagusta, and Pano Amiantos.
Converted cathedral
Perhaps the most iconic religious architecture of Nicosia is the Selimiye Mosque. Originally constructed to be the Cathedral of Saint Sophia, it also known as the Agia Sophia of Nicosia and was constructed in the year of 1326 as a Catholic church. It was converted into a mosque in 1570 and it is located in North Nicosia. It has historically been the main mosque of the city and is housed in the largest and oldest surviving Gothic church in Cyprus (interior dimensions: ) possibly constructed on the site of an earlier Byzantine church.
During the 50-day Ottoman Empire siege of the city in 1570, the cathedral provided refuge for a great number of people. When the city fell on 9 September, Francesco Contarini, the Bishop of Paphos, delivered the last Christian sermon in the building, in which he asked for divine help and exhorted the people. The cathedral was stormed by Ottoman soldiers, who broke the door and killed the bishop along with others. They smashed or threw out Christian items, such as furniture and ornaments in the cathedralKeshishian, Kevork K. (1978). Nicosia: Capital of Cyprus Then and Now, p. 104, The Mouflon Book and Art Centre. and destroyed the choir as well as the nave. (2025). 9789963660032, Galeri Kültür. ISBN 9789963660032 Then, they washed the interior of the mosque to make it ready for the first Friday prayer that it would host on 15 September, which was attended by the commander Lala Mustafa Pasha and saw the official conversion of the cathedral into a mosque. During the same year, the two were added, as well as Islamic features such as the mihrab (prayer niche) and the minbar (sermon pulpit).
Islam
Historically Nicosia (south and north) hosts over 15 mosques, either originally constructed as such or converted from a church.
The Ömeriye Mosque, formerly known as the Augustinian Church of Saint Mary is a mosque in the walled city of Nicosia on the island of Cyprus, currently located in the south section of Nicosia. Following the Turkish invasion of Cyprus, the mosque gained significance as one of the most important sites of Muslim worship in the non-Muslim section of the island and the city.
Currently, the mosque is functioning and open for both worshippers and visitors.
Culture
The Cyprus Museum is the largest and oldest archaeological museum in Cyprus. In old Nicosia, the Ethnological Museum (Hadjigeorgakis Kornesios Mansion) is the most important example of surviving urban architecture of the late Ottoman rule. Today, the mansion which was awarded the Europa Nostra prize for its exemplary renovation work, functions as a museum where a collection of artifacts from the Byzantine, Medieval and Ottoman periods are displayed. Other museums in Nicosia include the Cyprus Museum of Natural History and the Leventis Municipal Museum of Nicosia and Von World Pens Hall in the south. In the north, the Dervish Pasha Mansion, similar in architecture to the Hadjigeorgakis Kornesios Mansion, serves as an ethnological museum, displaying Ottoman and archaeological artifacts. Other museums include the Lusignan House, the Mevlevi Tekke Museum, associated with the sect of the Whirling Dervishes, and the Lapidary Museum.
Nicosia's universities also boast an array of facilities, and many churches and outdoor spaces are used to host cultural events. The Near East University hosts the Atatürk Cultural and Conference centre, with 700 seats.
Human resources
Education
Nicosia has a large student community as it is the seat of five universities, the University of Cyprus (UCY), the University of Nicosia, the European University Cyprus, the Open University of Cyprus and Frederick University. In addition, the city is home to the oldest still-operational Lyceum in Cyprus, Pancyprian Gymnasium.
Economy
Nicosia is the financial and business heart of Cyprus. The city hosts the headquarters of all Cypriot banks, namely the former Cyprus Popular Bank (also known as Laiki Bank), Bank of Cyprus, and the Hellenic Bank. Further, the Central Bank of Cyprus is located in the Acropolis area of the Cypriot capital. A number of international businesses base their Cypriot headquarters in Nicosia, such as the big four accounting firms PWC, Deloitte, KPMG and Ernst & Young. International technology companies such as NCR Corporation and TSYS have their regional headquarters in Nicosia. The city is also home to local financial newspapers such as the Financial Mirror and Stockwatch. Cyprus Airways had its head offices in the entrance of Makariou Avenue. Addresses Cyprus Airways The largest mall in Cyprus, Nicosia Mall, is located in the city. According to a UBS survey in August 2011, Nicosia is the wealthiest per capita city of the Eastern Mediterranean and the tenth richest city in the world by purchasing power in 2011.
Transport
Rapid transit
Bus transport
]]Public transport within the district is served by Nicosia Public Transport, a subsidiary of Cyprus Public Transport. Bus service used to be operated by OSEL (Nicosia District Transport Organisation) until 2020, but the company ceased to operate after fraud claims.
Train
There is no operating train network in Cyprus. Plans for the creation of an intercity railway have been made, but none has materialised. The first railway line on the island was the Cyprus Government Railway which operated from 1905 to 1951. It was closed down due to financial reasons. It used to stop in the city.
Motorways
Nicosia is linked with other major cities in Cyprus via a modern motorway network. The A1 motorway to the south, connects Nicosia with Limassol, which continues onto the A6 going from Limassol to Paphos.
The A2 to the southeast, links Nicosia with Larnaca, continuing onto the A3 going from Larnaca to Ayia Napa. The A9 to the west, connects Nicosia to the western Nicosia district villages and the Troodos mountains. The A22 Ring Road is currently under construction, which is planned to Ring road the city.
Airports
The capital is linked, via road, to the 2 international airports under the Republic's administration, Larnaca International Airport (located south-east from the city) and Paphos International Airport ( south-west).
The island's largest airport in the past, Nicosia International Airport, ceased commercial operations in 1974, after the Turkish invasion. It is located within the Green Line buffer zone, and is used as the headquarters of the United Nations Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus (UNFICYP).
Taxis and trams
In 2010, as part of the Nicosia Integrated Mobility Plan, a pre-feasibility study for a proposed tram network has taken place and sponsored by the Ministry of Communications and Works. The study compared two scenarios, with and without the operation of a tramway in terms of emitted polluting loads. THE NICOSIA INTEGRATED MOBILITY MASTER PLAN REPUBLIC OF CYPRUS – Ministry of Communications and Works
Cycling
In 2011, the Nicosia Municipality introduced the Bike in Action scheme, a bicycle sharing system which covers the Greater Nicosia area. The scheme is run by the Inter-Municipal Bicycle Company of Nicosia (DEPL).
Sports
Football is the most popular sport in Cyprus, and Nicosia is home of three major teams of the island; APOEL, AC Omonia and Olympiakos. APOEL and Omonia are dominant in Cypriot football. There are also many other football clubs in Nicosia and the suburbs. The city also hosts Çetinkaya, Yenicami, Küçük Kaymaklı and Gönyeli, four of the major Turkish Cypriot clubs. Nicosia is also home to AGBU Ararat Nicosia FC, the island's only Armenian FC.
Notable people
International relations
Twin towns – sister cities
Nicosia Municipality
Nicosia is Sister city with:
Nicosia Urban Area
Occupied Nicosia
North Nicosia is Sister city with:
Friendly cities
Nicosia Municipality
Nicosia also cooperates with:
Nicosia Urban Area
Foreign embassies and consulates
Nicosia
The Republic of Cyprus hosts an extensive diplomatic community in its capital city, Nicosia. At present, Nicosia hosts 42 embassies and 3 high commissions (in bold), 12 consulate generals, 44 consulates and 2 vice consulates (in italics), and 1 representation office. Do note that some nations might have multiple diplomatics missions in Nicosia.
North Nicosia
The de facto unrecognised state of Northern Cyprus hosts a limited diplomatic community in its capital in the de facto northern part of Nicosia. Foreign missions located in North Nicosia are: Foreign Missions in TRNC, mfa.gov.ct.tr (without date).
See also
Notes
Citations
Bibliography
External links
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