Lahoh

 ( Flatbreads ) 

Somali laxoox/canjeero is a pancake-like flatbread, i.e., made from a batter comprised typically of legumes or cereals other than wheat, usually due to a scarcity of wheat production. The modern-day production of Somali laxoox/canjeero is relatively homogenous, but recent research revealed two significant divergences: in bread formulation and the procedure for structure development. These divergences correspond broadly to regional differences in production methods. An original framework of four production styles ("heritage," "new heritage," "innovative," and "global") illustrates these divergences in detail.

In (greater) Somalia, gluten-like structure development in laxoox/canjeero historically relied on cajiin, a pre-gelatinized dough made from sorghum (or other non-glutinous or low-gluten grains) and hot water in a manual process involving 1 to 2 days of intermittent activity. Hydrothermal treatment changes protein and starch properties, causing starch to gelatinize and conferring hydrocolloid properties that mimic gluten. Gelatinized starch provides the batter with gas-holding capacity, which improves the stability of the dough and the flexibility of the resulting bread. Thus, cajiin was fundamental to achieving the desired texture in laxoox/canjeero made from low-gluten or gluten-free flours, such as sorghum. In the late twentieth century, industrial-grade kneading/sheeting machines were introduced in cities including Mogadishu, Hargeisa, Burao, Baidoa, and Warsheikh to produce commercial quantities of cajiin dough. This greatly reduced labor for household cooks, however, only a handful of machines remain. Those in northern Somalia cities were destroyed or dismantled during the conflict leading up to Somalia's civil war and never replaced. Per a 2019 survey, canjeero production in southern Somalia and parts of Puntland includes the use of cajiin, while its use in northern Somalia and Ethiopia's Somali State has ceased.

Laxoox/canjeero is commonly prepared using long fermentation, typically overnight, for consumption at breakfast. Some cooks enhance fermentation using a microbial starter known as dhanaanis, which speeds fermentation. Cooks may manipulate the type or quantity dhanaanis or another fermentation agent (such as commercial yeast) in response to temperature changes or adjust the fermentation period.

While canjeero in Somalia is frequently prepared only with refined white flour and corn flour, laxoox in northern Somalia and Ethiopia's Somali State is typically prepared with multiple dry ingredients, including sorghum, maize, barley, teff, and pulses such as cowpea and adzuki beans, in addition to herbs and spices to taste.

Cooked laxoox/canjeero and Yemeni lahoh retain a soft, puffed side that never contacts the griddle (taawa or daawa) surface but rather rises via steam under a well-fitting lid; and a browned side that cooks on the oiled griddle and is crispy when just cooked but quickly softens. The flatbread is pockmarked with holes, or "eyes," and appears translucent when held up to a light source. A 2022 study of laxoox and lahoh breads gathered from Somalia and Yemen as well as from Yemeni households in Hargeisa showed that the breads had porous structures with a cell density varying from 22.4 to 57.4 cells/cm² in the Somali laxoox, while one of the two Yemeni lahoh reached 145 cells/cm².

The 2022 study showed that the bioactive content and the antioxidant activity of Somali laxoox and Yemeni laxoox breads significantly varied among households and baking batches due to the natural variability of manual food preparation, as well as in the recipes and compositions of raw materials used. Total carotenoids were highest (22.58 mg β-carotene/kg) in red sorghum flour, where anthocyanins were also found (0.32 mg cyanidin 3- O-glucoside/g), but markedly decreased by adding refined wheat flour, indicating that the use of refined wheat flour has negative effects on the content of bioactive compounds.

In the same study, a principal component analysis (PCA) underlined the main features that distinguish the laxoox breads from both of the Yemeni lahoh samples, although a Sanaa'ani style lahoh bread, representative of ordinary flatbread production in Yemen, was similar to the laxoox main group. In contrast, a flatbread sourced from Aruuq, Yemen was highly unique.