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Kisaeng (), also called ginyeo (), were enslaved women from outcast or enslaved families who were trained to be , providing artistic entertainment and conversation to men of upper class. First emerging in Goryeo dynasty. were officially sanctioned by the state and employed in various public functions. While many worked in royal courts, others were stationed throughout the provinces.
Trained in music, dance, poetry, and prose, kisaeng were often highly educated and skilled in the fine arts. Despite their low social status, they were respected as cultured artists. In addition to entertainment, some were assigned duties in medicine and needlework.
hold an important place in the traditional cultural memory of the [[Joseon]] dynasty. Although most individual have faded from history, a few are remembered for their talents, intelligence, or loyalty. The most renowned among them is [[Hwang Jini]], a celebrated 16th-century ''kisaeng'' known for her poetry and wit.
Many were skilled in poetry, and numerous composed by have survived. These often reflect themes of heartache and parting, similar to poems composed by seonbi in exile.McCann (1974), p. 42. In addition, some of the most famous poems were composed to persuade prominent scholars to spend the night.These include Hwang Jin-i's "I will break the back of this long winter night" and Han-u's "You will freeze to death". See McCann (1974), Kim (1976). The style later came to be associated with women, while women of status focused on the form.Kim (1963), p. 34.
attached to a local government office were known as , and their status was differentiated from that of the common slaves also attached to the office. They were separately entered on the census rolls. The were regarded as of significantly higher status than the slaves, although technically they were all of rank.Ahn (2000b), p. 83.
Though they were of low social class, the held a unique role in ancient Korea's society, and were respected for their career as educated artists and writers. For this reason, they were sometimes spoken of as "possessing the body of the lower class but the mind of the aristocrat" Kisaeng and as having a "paradoxical identity as a socially despised yet popularly (unofficially) acclaimed artist". Not all engaged in prostitution as different groups or tiers of had different educations and roles. Numerous accounts report individual as specializing specifically in arts, music, poetry, and conversation skills.
In the later period of Joseon, a three-tiered system developed.Hwang (1997), p. 452. The highest tier was occupied by () who sang and danced at upper-class feasts. were not permitted to entertain after they turned 30.Lee (2002), p. 89; Hwang (1997), p. 452. However, they could continue working in other duties, such as dressmaking and medicine, until the age of 50.Lee (2002), p. 89. They received guests only by choice. The () of each district, who was the leader of the , took charge of discipline and training new .
of the lowest tier were called (). The were forbidden to perform the songs and dances of the .Kim (1976), p. 140. The three-tiered system, like other aspects of Joseon class division, broke down in the late 19th century.So claimed by Kim (1976, p. 140); but Song (1999, p. 35) seems to state that the system continued into the early 20th century.
In the course of their careers, some were able to amass considerable personal wealth. However, these were the exception. were required to meet their expenses, including food, clothes, and makeup, out of their own personal funds.Ahn (2000b), p. 86.
As were skilled workers from the beginning, the government took an early interest in ensuring correct education. This first emerged with the establishment of , training institutes for palace during the Goryeo period. During the Joseon period, this became further codified, with instruction focusing on music and dance.
In the three-tiered system of later Joseon, more specialized training schools were established for of the first tier. The course of study lasted three years and covered poetry, dance, music, and art.Song (1999, p. 35). The most advanced such school was located in Pyongyang. This system continued well into the Japanese colonial period, during which time the schools training were known as ().
However, the detailed affairs of the were not directly overseen by the state. Order was kept within each gyobang, which might include some tens of , by the haengsu , those of the highest tier.Ahn (2000b), pp. 98–99. When problems arose between a and a client, or when charges of criminal conduct were made against a , the haengsu usually took the leading role in resolving the situation.Ahn (2000b), p. 99.
In addition, most had a gibu, or " husband", who provided protection and economic support, such as buying them valuable things or granting them social status in return for entertainment.Ahn (2000b), pp. 91–92. Most gibu were former soldiers, government enforcers, or servants of the royal household.Ahn (2000b), p. 92–93. At times, there was friction between would-be customers and possessive gibu, although the gibu was not the 's husband and had no legal claim to her. The role of the gibu changed over time; at first, many in government service had no such patron.Kim (1976), p. 139. However, by the late Joseon dynasty, the gibu system was more or less universal.Kim (1976), pp. 139–140; Ahn (2000b), pp. 91–92.
In the Joseon dynasty, houses were typically located near the center of a town, often close to the marketplace.Ahn (2000b), pp. 89–90. They were laid out to create a welcoming effect; in many cases, a location was chosen with a fine view,Ahn (2000b), p. 94. and the area around the house would be landscaped with ornamental pools and plantings.
played a number of important political roles, as servants of the state and in their own right.
Thanks to their frequenting the taverns and guest-houses of the town, were often among the most knowledgeable on local affairs. For this reason, they were at times a key source of intelligence. It was through information supplied by that the rebel army of Hong Gyeong-nae was able to easily take the fortress of Chongju in the early 19th century.
When cities fell, as many of Korea's cities did during the 1592–1598 Japanese invasions of Korea, were often made to entertain the generals of the victorious army. Some of Korea's most famous , including Nongae of Jinju, are remembered today for their bravery in killing or attempting to kill leaders of the imperial Japanese army.
Some were also active in the Korean independence movements of the early 20th century. In this they resembled other women of Joseon, who often took a leading role in the independence struggle. Aengmu, a of Daegu, was a major donor to the National Debt Repayment Movement in the early 20th century.Daegu Gyeongbuk Historical Research Society (1999), p. 219. Some fifty of Jinju took part in a demonstration as part of the March 1st Movement in 1919.
seem to have been relatively few in number, at the most a few thousand. They were spread throughout the country, with a few hundred in the larger centers and smaller numbers in the [[hyeon]] villages.Hwang (1997), p. 450; Ahn (2000b) notes that some estimates place the total as high as 20,000, but ultimately concurs with Hwang that the total was probably less than 10,000. They were also found in the "stations" and inns which provided food and shelter to travelers along the country's arterial roads, such as the Great Yeongnam Road.
The number and characteristics of the varied greatly from region to region. During the Joseon period, the city with the most by far was Seoul, then called Hanseong, with perhaps 1000.So estimated by Hwang (1997), also Ahn (2000b, p. 101). Many of these worked for the court, and helped to fill the vast number of trained entertainers needed for grand festivals.This practice was at its height under the reign of Yeonsan-gun, but continued in other periods. Beautiful or talented were often taken from the provinces to Seoul. The required training for in Seoul was regular and very strict, with inattentive sent home.Ahn (2000b), p. 100.
There were also large numbers of in the old capitals of Kaesong and Pyongyang. The of Pyongyang were noted for their high level of skill and beauty.Kim (1976), p. 142. The school of Pyongyang was one of the country's most advanced, and continued operating until late in the colonial period. The of Pyongyang were also known for their ability to recite the kwan san yung ma, a song by the 18th-century composer Sin Kwangsu.
Other large concentrations existed around , particularly along the northern border. For instance, in the time of Sejong the Great in the 15th century, there were some sixty attached to the army base at Nyongbyon County.Ahn (2000b), p. 102. In these areas, essentially filled the role of wives for the army and their role was commensurately more focused on domestic tasks than entertainment.
The of other regions also maintained distinctive local identities. The of Jinju were particularly adept at the Geommu, a traditional sword dance. Those of Jeju were known for their equestrian prowess.Ahn (2000b), p. 100; Kim (1976), p. 144. In many cases, the noted skills of a region's corresponded with some other local claim to fame. The of the Gwandong region on the east coast, home to many famous sights including Mount Kumgang, memorized the gwan dong byeol gok (), a poem recounting their region's scenery. Those of the Honam region in the southwest were trained in pansori, while those of the seonbi city Andong could recite the Great Learning (Daxue; Daehak) by heart.Kim (1976), p. 144.
One theory actually places their origins in the Silla, among the wonhwa, female predecessors of the hwarang.This was asserted by Yi Neung-hwa, author of the first history of the (Hwang 1997, p. 449). However, there is little to suggest a concrete link between Silla's wonhwa and the later . Also, the wonhwa seem to have been chosen from among the aristocracy, whereas were always members of the lower classes.Hwang 1997, loc. cit. For these reasons, few contemporary scholars support this theory.
Many others trace their origins to the early years of Goryeo, when many people were displaced following the end of the Later Three Kingdoms period in 936.The Silhak scholar Tasan traced the origin of the class to Myeongjong's creation of the gijeok, but most contemporary scholars believe that the class had already emerged earlier in the dynasty (Hwang 1997, p. 450). At this time, a large number of Baekje people wandered the country. It is not clear whether this nomadic lifestyle was already established, or a consequence of the recent turmoil. In fact, a connection between these wanderers and the nomadic tribes of Manchuria has been conjectured. The first king of Goryeo, Taejo, considered these wanderers to be a threat to the stability of the state. He ordered that they be made into slaves of the government. Although no certain records exist, it is likely that the first were drawn from these former wanderers.
Due to the growth of the class, during the reign of Myeongjong the state began to keep records (called gijeok) of the living in each jurisdiction. Around this time, the state also made its first efforts to set up educational institutions to train entertainers. These academies were known as gyobang, and first appear in history with their abolition by King Hyeonjong in 1010. However, they were re-established in the reign of Chungnyeol. The gyobang provided training in the dangak and sogak musical styles.
The women trained in the gyobang were exclusively court entertainers. Their role in the affairs of the court became increasingly important as the dynasty progressed. They entertained both the king and visiting dignitaries, a role which continued into the Joseon period. In addition, beginning in the reign of Munjong, they performed at official ceremonies of the state.Kim (1976), pp. 54–55.
Just as the origin of the is unclear, so is their precise relation to other strata of society. The female entertainers who appear in records are exclusively of the court, and are recorded as slaves of the government.Kim (1976), p. 55.
Joseon was founded on Korean Confucianism, and these scholars of the time took a very dim view of professional women and of the class in particular. There were many calls for the abolition of the , or for their exclusion from court, but these were not successful—perhaps because of the influence of the women themselves, or perhaps because of fear that officials would take to stealing the wives of other men. One such proposal was made during the reign of Sejong the Great, but when an advisor of the court suggested that the abolition of the class would lead to government officials committing grave crimes, the king chose to preserve the .Hwang (1997), p. 450. The advisor was Heo Jong.
During the brief and violent reign of Yeonsangun between 1494 and 1506, became symbolic of royal excess. Yeonsan-gun treated women as primarily objects of pleasure, and made even the medicinal ( yakbang gisaeng) into entertainers.Kim (1976), p. 138. Yeonsan-gun brought 1,000 women and girls from the provinces to serve as palace ; many of them were paid from the public treasury. He may have been the first to institute a formal hierarchy among them, dividing the of the palace into "Heaven", those with whom he slept, and "Earth", those who served other functions.
In 1650, all were made slaves of the government.Breen (2004), p. 88. The attached to a government office were known as gwan-gi, or " of the office". Their role did not, by law, include sexual service to the officeholder; in fact, government officials could be punished severely for consorting with a . However, in practice were often forced to serve the officeholder.So asserted by Ahn (2000a), p. 94. A distinction was sometimes made between those gwan-gi who were obliged to sleep with the officeholder, and those who were not.Hwang (1997), p. 452. According to Hwang, he terms used were 겉수청, or "surface government servants", and 살수청, or "flesh government servants". This distinction was featured in the popular play Chunhyangga.Hwang (1997). However, according to Ahn (2000a, p. 298), Chunhyang could refuse the magistrate's advances because her body-price had already been paid and her name had been removed from the gijeok, meaning she was no longer a .
The Gabo Reform of 1895 officially abolished the class system of Joseon dynasty, and slavery as well. From that year forward, all became nominally free, and the gwan-gi no longer belonged to the government. In practice, many , like many other slaves, continued in servitude for many years. In addition, many of those who were freed had no alternative career; they continued as entertainers, now without the protections afforded by status. During the subsequent decade, many of these went elsewhere to work.
Very few traditional houses continue to operate in South Korea, and many traditions and dances are considered to be lost forever. Some South Korean businesses continue to escort visiting foreign business people to a house, but these locations are mostly modern interpretations of old houses. The oldest traditional house in Korea, Ohjinam (오진암), was closed in 2010. Today, the 's evolution and impact on Korean society is receiving new attention as Koreans increase efforts to rediscover and revitalize their cultural and historical heritage. However, this interest is focused almost entirely on the historical of the Joseon period, and not on the traces of the which endure today.
Prostitution is illegal in South Korea.
Prostitution is illegal in North Korea.Article 261
have played important roles in Korean popular literature since the mid-Joseon dynasty. As popular literature such as novels and [[pansori]] emerged, often took a leading role. This was in part due to their unique role as women who could move freely in society. appear as heroines in stories such as ''[[Chunhyangga]]'', and as important figures in many other Joseon-era narratives.
also began to appear in the vernacular art of later Joseon. They are particularly common in the work of the famed early 19th-century painter [[Hyewon|Shin Yun-bok]], whose work focused on both the life of the ''cheonmin'', including , and erotic themes. During the colonial period, were a popular object to Japanese and Korean painters, and postcards with the picture of Korean were circulated in Japan.
continue to be central to the understanding and imagining of Joseon culture in contemporary [[South|South Korea]] and [[North Korea]]. For example, the female lead in the film ''[[Chi-hwa-seon]]'' was a , the companion of painter [[Owon|Jang Seung-eop]]. Fresh treatments of popular stories, including the fictional Chunhyang and the historical Hwang Jin-Yi, continue to emerge in popular novels and cinema. There was a modern re-telling of in the TV series ''New Tales of Gisaeng''.
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