Kimchi (; , ) is a traditional Korean side dish ( banchan) consisting of salted and fermented vegetables, most often napa cabbage or Korean radish. A wide selection of seasonings are used, including gochugaru (Korean chili powder), , garlic, ginger, and jeotgal (salted seafood).
There are hundreds of different types of kimchi made with different vegetables as the main ingredients.
Etymology
Ji
The term
ji (지), which has its origins in archaic Korean
dihi (디히), has been used to refer to kimchi since ancient times.
The
sound change can be roughly described as:
-
dihi (디히) > di (디) > ji (지)
The
Middle Korean form
dihi is found in several books from the
Joseon period (1392–1897).
[ (from the original Jiālǐ 家禮 by Zhu Xi)] In
Korean language, the word remains as the suffix
-ji in the standard language (as in
jjanji,
seokbak-ji),
and as the suffix
-ji as well as the noun
ji in Gyeongsang and
.
The unpalatalized form
di is preserved in
Pyongan dialect.
Kimchi
Kimchi (김치) is the accepted word in both North and South Korean standard languages. Earlier forms of the word include (), a
Middle Korean transcription of the Sino-Korean word 菜]] (literally "submerged vegetable"). appears in
Sohak Eonhae,
the 16th-century Korean rendition of the Chinese book,
Xiaoxue.
Sound changes from Middle Korean to Modern Korean regarding the word can be described as:
-
(; 沈菜) > () > () > (짐츼) > (김치)
The aspirated first consonant of became unaspirated in , then underwent palatalization in . The word then became with the loss of the vowel () in Korean language, then kimchi, with the depalatalized word-initial consonant. In Modern Korean, the hanja characters 沈菜 are pronounced chimchae (침채), and are not used to refer to kimchi, or anything else. The word kimchi is not considered as a Sino-Korean word.
The English word "kimchi" perhaps originated from kimch'i, the McCune–Reischauer transcription of the Korean word kimchi (김치).
History
Early history
Samguk Sagi, a historical record of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, mentions the
Onggi used to ferment vegetables, which indicates that fermented vegetables were commonly eaten during this time.
Attributed to the earliest kimchi, the
Goguryeo people were skilled at fermenting and widely consumed fermented food.
During the
Silla dynasty (57 BCE – CE 935), kimchi became prevalent as
Buddhism caught on throughout the nation and fostered a vegetarian lifestyle.
The pickling of vegetables was an ideal method, prior to refrigerators, that helped to preserve the lifespan of foods. In Korea, kimchi was made during the winter by fermenting vegetables, and burying them in the ground in traditional brown ceramic pots called onggi. This labor further allowed a bonding among women within the family.
Kimchi has been a staple in Korean culture, but historical versions were not a spicy dish.[Kimchi. (2016). Funk & Wagnalls New World Encyclopedia, 1p. 1.] Early records of kimchi do not mention garlic or chili pepper.
A 1766 book, Jeungbo sallim gyeongje, reports kimchi varieties made with myriad ingredients, including chonggak-kimchi (kimchi made with chonggak radish), oi-sobagi (with cucumber), seokbak-ji (with jogi-jeot), and dongchimi.[ ]
Modern history
During South Korea's involvement in the
Vietnam War, the industrialization and commercialization of kimchi production became increasingly important because the Korean government wanted to provide
Field ration for its troops. The Korean government requested American help to ensure that South Korean troops, reportedly "desperate" for the food, could obtain it in the field.
In 2008, South Korean scientists created a special low-calorie, vitamin-rich "space kimchi" for Yi So-yeon, the first Korean astronaut, to take to space. It was bacteria-free, unlike normal kimchi in which bacteria are essential for fermentation. It was feared that cosmic rays might mutate the bacteria.
South Korea developed programs for adult Korean adoptees to return to South Korea and learn about what it means to be Korean. One of these programs was learning how to make kimchi.
1996 kimchi standard dispute with Japan
In 1996, Korea protested against Japanese commercial production of kimchi arguing that the Japanese-produced product (
, キムチ]]) was different from kimchi. In particular, Japanese kimchi was not fermented and was more similar to
asazuke. Korea lobbied for an international standard from the Codex Alimentarius, an organization associated with the World Health Organization that defines voluntary standards for food preparation for international trade purposes.
In 2001, the Codex Alimentarius published a voluntary standard defining kimchi as "a fermented food that uses salted napa cabbages as its main ingredient mixed with seasonings, and goes through a lactic acid production process at a low temperature", but which neither specified a minimum amount of fermentation nor forbade the use of any additives.
Following the inclusion of the kimchi standard, kimchi exports in Korea did increase, but so did the production of kimchi in China and the import of Chinese kimchi into Korea.
2010 Kimchi ingredient price crisis
Due to heavy rainfall shortening the harvesting time for cabbage and other main ingredients for kimchi in 2010, the price of kimchi ingredients and kimchi itself rose greatly. Korean and international newspapers described the rise in prices as a national crisis.
Some restaurants stopped offering kimchi as a free side dish, which
The New York Times compared to an American hamburger restaurant no longer offering free
ketchup.
In response to the kimchi price crisis, the South Korean government announced the temporary reduction of tariffs on imported cabbage to coincide with the
gimjang season.
Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity
Kimchi-related items have been inscribed on
UNESCO's Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity by both South and North Korea. This makes kimchi the second intangible heritage that was submitted by two countries, the other one being the folk song "
Arirang" which was also submitted by both the Koreas.
"The culture of kimjang" was the subject of the Intangible Cultural Heritage: kimchi is not registered by itself.
Submitted by South Korea (inscribed 2013)
gimjang, the tradition of making and sharing kimchi that usually takes place in late autumn, was added to the list as "Gimjang, making and sharing kimchi in the Republic of Korea". The practice of Gimjang reaffirms Korean identity and strengthens family cooperation. Gimjang is also an important reminder for many Koreans that human communities need to live in harmony with nature.
Submitted by North Korea (inscribed 2015)
North Korean kimchi-making was inscribed on the list in December 2015
as "Tradition of kimchi-making in the Democratic People's Republic of Korea".
North Korean kimchi tends to be less spicy and less red than South Korean kimchi.
Seafood is used less often and less salt is added. Additional sugar is used to help with fermentation in the cold climate.
Kimchi Day
In the
United States, the states
California,
Virginia,
Maryland and New York, and the capital city Washington D.C. have issued proclamations declaring 22 November as 'Kimchi Day' to recognize the importance of the dish as part of Korean culture.
2012 effective ban by China of Korean kimchi imports
Since 2012, the Chinese government has effectively banned the import of Korean kimchi through government regulations. Ignoring the standards of kimchi outlined by the
Codex Alimentarius, China defined kimchi as a derivative of one of its own cuisines, called
pao cai.
However, due to significantly different preparation techniques from
pao cai, kimchi has significantly more lactic acid bacteria through its fermentation process, which exceeds China's regulations.
Since 2012, commercial exports of Korean kimchi to China has reached zero; the only minor amounts of exports accounting for Korean kimchi are exhibition events held in China.
2017 boycott in China
A 2017 article in
The New York Times said that anti-Korean sentiment in China had risen after South Korea's acceptance of the deployment of THAAD in South Korea. Government-run Chinese news media encouraged the boycott of South Korean goods, and some Chinese nationalists vowed not to eat kimchi.
The move was criticized by other Chinese nationalists, who noted that China officially considered Koreans an integral ethnic group in the multinational state, and that kimchi is also indigenous to the Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture.
2020 kimchi ISO standard dispute with China
In November 2020, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) posted ISO 24220:2020, new regulations for the making of
pao cai.
The same month,
BBC News reported that Chinese news organization
Global Times claimed the new ISO standard was "an international standard for the kimchi industry led by China" despite the standard clearly stating "this document does not apply to kimchi".
This sparked strong anger from South Korean media and people,
as well as the responses from some Chinese people who argued China held the right to claim kimchi as their own.
However clarifications from both countries, later revealed that the controversy was triggered over a misunderstanding of a translation of the Chinese word pao cai.
According to Sojin Lim, co-director of the Institute of Korean Studies of the University of Central Lancashire, Korean kimchi is often called pao cai in China, but China has its own Sichuan cuisine fermented vegetable dish that it also calls pao cai.
Ingredients
Kimchi varieties are determined by the main vegetable ingredients and the mix of seasoning used to flavor the kimchi.
Vegetables
Cabbages (
,
bomdong,
) and radishes (
,
,
,
) are the most commonly used kimchi vegetables.
Other kimchi vegetables include:
chamchwi,
doraji,
ueong roots,
celery,
chamnamul,
cilantro,
garden cress, crown daisy greens,
cucumber,
eggplant,
garlic chives,
garlic scapes,
ginger, Korean angelica-tree shoots,
Korean parsley, Korean wild chive,
,
mustard greens, onions,
Kkaennip,
bamboo shoot, momordica charantia, pumpkins,
mucheong,
rapeseed leaves, scallions,
Edible seaweed,
,
spinach,
,
sweet potato vines, and
.
Seasonings
Brining salt (with a larger grain size compared to
kitchen salt) is used mainly for initial salting of kimchi vegetables. Being minimally processed, it serves to help develop flavors in fermented foods.
Cabbage is usually salted twice when making spicy kimchi.
Commonly used seasonings include gochugaru (chili powder), , garlic, ginger, and jeotgal (salted seafood)
Salt, scallions, garlic, fish sauce, and sugar are commonly added to flavor the kimchi.
Production
To make kimchi, start by slicing cabbage or daikon into small, uniform pieces to increase surface area. The pieces are then coated with salt to draw out water, which helps preserve them by preventing the growth of harmful microorganisms. This salting process can use 5–7% salt for 12 hours or 15% salt for 3–7 hours.
After salting, drain the excess water and mix in the seasoning ingredients. Adding sugar can also help by binding any remaining water. Finally, pack the brined vegetables into an airtight jar and let them ferment at room temperature for 24 to 48 hours. The ideal salt concentration during fermentation is about 3%.
Since the fermentation process results in the production of carbon dioxide, the jar should be "burped" daily to release the gas.
Microorganisms in kimchi
The
present in kimchi include
Bacillus mycoides,
B. pseudomycoides,
B. subtilis,
Lactobacillus brevis,
Lb. curvatus,
Lb. kimchii,
Lb. parabrevis,
Lb. pentosus,
Lb. plantarum,
Lb. sakei,
Lb. spicheri,
Lactococcus carnosum,
Lc. gelidum,
Lc. lactis,
Leuconostoc carnosum,
Ln. citreum,
Ln. gasicomitatum,
Ln. gelidum,
Ln. holzapfelii,
Ln. inhae,
Ln. kimchii,
Ln. lactis,
Ln. mesenteroides,
Serratia marcescens,
Weissella cibaria,
W. confusa,
W. kandleri,
W. kimchii.
W. koreensis, and
Weissella soli.
and
, such as Saccharomyces, Candida, Pichia, and Kluyveromyces are also present in kimchi,
with the latter being responsible for undesirable white colonies that sometimes form in the product as well as food spoilages and off-flavors.
In early fermentation stages, the Leuconostoc variety is found more dominantly in kimchi fermentation because of its lower acid tolerance and microaerophilic properties; the Leuconostoc variety also grows better at low salt concentrations.
These microorganisms are present due to the natural microflora provided by utilizing unsterilized food materials in the production of kimchi.
Since the raw cruciferous vegetables themselves are the source of LAB required for fermentation, no starter culture is required for the production of kimchi; rather, spontaneous fermentation occurs.
By-products of microorganisms
The lactic acid bacteria (LAB) produce
lactic acid, hydrogen peroxide, and
carbon dioxide as by-products during metabolism. Lactic acid quickly lowers the pH, creating an acidic environment that is uninhabitable for most other microorganisms that survived salting.
This also modifies the flavor of sub-ingredients and can increase the nutritive value of the raw materials, as the microbial community in the fermentation process can synthesize B vitamins and hydrolyze cellulose in plant tissues to free nutrients that are normally indigestible by the human gastrointestinal tract.
Hydrogen peroxide is formed by the oxidation of reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH) and provides an antibiotic to inhibit some undesirable microorganisms.
Carbon dioxide functions as a preservative, flushing out oxygen to create an anaerobic environment, as well as creating the desired carbonation in the final product.
Odor
Kimchi is known for its strong, spicy, flavors and odors, although milder varieties exist. Variations in the fermentation process cause the final product to be highly variable in terms of quality and flavor.
The strong odor is especially tied to the sulfur compounds from garlic and ginger of kimchi, which can be less appealing to non-Koreans. Thus, scientists are experimenting with the types of bacteria used in its production to minimize the odor to increase the appeal to international markets.
These efforts are not universally appreciated by lovers of kimchi, as the flavor is affected in the process, and some see that "South Korea's narrative about its own culinary staple" is being manipulated to suit the foreigners' tastes.
Varieties
Kimchi is one of the most important staples of
Korean cuisine. The Korean term "Kimchi" refers to fermented vegetables, and encompasses salt and seasoned vegetables.
It is mainly served as a side dish with every meal, but also can be served as a main dish.
[Korean Tourism Organization. (2015). Kimchi.] Kimchi is mainly recognized as a spicy fermented cabbage dish globally.
New variations of kimchi continue to be created,[Kimchi. (2016). Funk & Wagnall's New World Encyclopedia, 1p. 1.] Conventionally, the secret of kimchi preparation was passed down by mothers to their daughters in a bid to make them suitable wives to their husbands.
Kimchi can be categorized by main ingredients, regions or seasons. Korea's northern and southern sections have a considerable temperature difference.[ "Kimchi." Yahoo Korean Encyclopedia ] There are over 180 recognized varieties of kimchi.
-
Baechu-kimchi (배추김치) spicy napa cabbage kimchi, made from whole cabbage leaves
-
Baechu-geotjeori (배추겉절이) unfermented napa cabbage kimchi
-
Bossam-kimchi (보쌈김치) wrapped kimchi
-
Baek-kimchi (백김치) white kimchi, made without chili pepper
-
Dongchimi (동치미) a non-spicy watery kimchi
-
Nabak-kimchi (나박김치) a mildly spicy watery kimchi
-
Chonggak-kimchi (총각김치) cubed chonggak radish, a popular spicy kimchi
-
Kkakdugi (깍두기) spicy cubed Korean radish strongly-scented kimchi containing fermented shrimp
-
Oi-sobagi (오이소박이) cucumber kimchi that can be stuffed with seafood and chili paste, and is a popular choice during the spring and summer seasons
-
Pa-kimchi (파김치) spicy green onion kimchi
-
Yeolmu-kimchi (열무김치) is also a popular choice during the spring and summer, and is made with , and does not necessarily have to be fermented.
-
Gat-kimchi (갓김치), made with Indian mustard
-
Yangbaechu-kimchi (양배추 김치) spicy cabbage kimchi, made from "headed" cabbage leaves (as opposed to napa cabbage)
Kimchi from the northern parts of Korea tend to have less salt and red chili and usually do not include brined seafood for seasoning. Northern kimchi often has a watery consistency. Kimchi made in the southern parts of Korea, such as Jeolla Province and Gyeongsang Province, uses salt, chili peppers and myeolchijeot (멸치젓, brined anchovy allowed to ferment) or saeujeot (새우젓, brined shrimp allowed to ferment), myeolchiaekjeot (멸치액젓), anchovy fish sauce, kkanariaekjeot (까나리액젓), liquid anchovy Jeotgal, similar to fish sauce used in Southeast Asia, but thicker.
Saeujeot (새우젓) or myeolchijeot is not added to the kimchi spice-seasoning mixture, but is simmered first to reduce odors, eliminate tannic flavor and fats, and then is mixed with a thickener made of rice or wheat starch (풀). This technique has been falling into disuse in the past 40 years.
Color
White kimchi is neither red nor spicy. It includes white
Baechu-kimchi and other varieties such as white
Korean radish kimchi (
dongchimi). Watery white kimchi varieties are sometimes used as an ingredient in a number of dishes such as cold noodles in
dongchimi brine (
dongchimi-guksu).
Age
-
Geotjeori (겉절이): fresh, unfermented kimchi.
-
Mugeun-ji (묵은지), also known as mugeun-kimchi (묵은김치): aged kimchi
Region
The following regional classification dates to the 1960s. Since then, kimchi-making practices and trends in Korea have diverged from it.
-
Pyongan Province Non-traditional ingredients have been adopted in rural areas due to severe food shortages.
-
Hamgyong Province: Due to its proximity to the ocean, people in this particular region use fresh fish and oysters to season their kimchi.
-
Hwanghae Province: The taste of kimchi in Hwanghae Province is not bland but not extremely spicy. Most kimchi from this region have less color since red chili flakes are not used. The typical kimchi in Hwanghae Province is called hobakji (호박지). It is made with pumpkin ( bundi).'', a savory Korean pancake with kimchi]]
-
Gyeonggi Province
-
Chungcheong Province: Instead of using fermented fish, people in the region rely on salt and fermentation to make savory kimchi. Chungcheong Province has the most varieties of kimchi.
-
Gangwon Province, South Korea /Kangwon Province, North Korea: In Gangwon Province, kimchi is stored for longer periods. Unlike other coastal regions in Korea, kimchi in this area does not contain much salted fish.
-
Jeolla Province: Salted yellow corvina and salted butterfish are used in this region to create different seasonings for kimchi.
-
Gyeongsang Province: This region's cuisine is saltier and spicier. The most common seasoning components include myeolchijeot (멸치젓) which produces a briny and savory flavor. They also use oysters in their kimchi.
-
Foreign countries: In some places of the world people sometimes make kimchi with western cabbage and many other alternative ingredients such as broccoli.
Seasonal variations
Different types of kimchi were traditionally made at different times of the year, based on when various vegetables were in season and also to take advantage of hot and cold seasons before the era of refrigeration. Although the advent of modern refrigeration – including kimchi refrigerators specifically designed with precise controls to keep different varieties of kimchi at optimal temperatures at various stages of fermentation – has made this seasonality unnecessary, Koreans continue to consume kimchi according to traditional seasonal preferences.
Spring
After a long period of consuming
gimjang kimchi (김장김치) during the winter, fresh
and vegetables were used to make kimchi. These kinds of kimchi were not fermented or even stored for long periods of time but were consumed fresh.
Summer
and cucumbers are summer vegetables made into kimchi,
yeolmu-kimchi (열무김치) which is eaten in several bites. Brined fish or shellfish can be added, and freshly ground dried chili peppers are often used.
Autumn
Baechu kimchi is prepared by inserting blended stuffing materials, called
sok (literally
inside), between layers of salted leaves of uncut, whole
Napa cabbage. The ingredients of
sok (속) can vary, depending on the regions and weather conditions. Generally,
baechu kimchi used to have a strong salty flavor until the late 1960s, before which a large amount of
myeolchijeot or
saeujeot had been used.
Gogumasoon Kimchi is made from sweet potato stems.
Winter
Traditionally, the greatest varieties of kimchi were available during the winter. In preparation for the long winter months, many types of
gimjang kimchi (김장 김치) were prepared in early winter and stored in the ground in large kimchi pots. Today, many city residents use modern kimchi refrigerators offering precise temperature controls to store kimjang kimchi. November and December are traditionally when people begin to make kimchi; women often gather together in each other's homes to help with winter kimchi preparations. "Baechu kimchi" is made with salted
baechu filled with thin strips of
Korean radish, parsley, pine nuts, pears, chestnuts, shredded red pepper, manna lichen (), garlic, and ginger.
Korean preference
As of 2004, the preference of kimchi preparation in Korean households from the most prepared type of kimchi to less prepared types of kimchi was:
baechu kimchi, being the most prepared type of kimchi, then
kkakdugi, then
dongchimi and then
chonggak kimchi.
Baechu kimchi comprised more than seventy percent of marketed kimchi and radish kimchi comprised about twenty percent of marketed kimchi.
Nutrition
Kimchi is made of various vegetables and contains a high concentration of
dietary fiber,
while being low in
food energy. The vegetables used in kimchi also contribute to intake of vitamin A, thiamine (B
1), riboflavin (B
2), calcium, and iron.
+Nutritional composition of typical kimchi[Korea Food Research Institute]
!Nutrients
!per 100 g
!Nutrients
!per 100 g |
| Food energy | 32 | Moisture | 88.4 g |
| Crude protein | 2.0 g | Crude lipid | 0.6 g |
| Total sugar | 1.3 g | Crude fiber | 1.2 g |
| Crude ash | 0.5 g | Calcium | 45 mg |
| Phosphorus | 28 mg | Vitamin A | 492 IU |
| Vitamin B1 | 0.03 mg | Vitamin B2 | 0.06 mg |
| Niacin | 2.1 mg | Vitamin C | 21 mg |
| + Vitamin contents of common kimchi and average vitamin contents of 4 kimchi during fermentation at 3–7°C |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
aNaturally fermented baechu kimchi
bAverage levels of four kimchis; common kimchi +3 different starter inoculated kimchis |
| |
Source: Hui et al. (2005) |
| +General components of kimchi (per 100g of edible portion) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| |
Source: Tamang (2015) |
A 2003 article said that South Koreans consume 18kg (40lbs) of kimchi per person annually.
Trade
South Korea spent around $129 million in 2017 to purchase 275,000 metric tons of foreign kimchi, more than 11 times the amount it exported, according to data released by the Korea Customs Service in 2017.
South Korea consumes 1.85 million metric tons of kimchi annually, or 36.1 kg per person.
It imports a significant fraction of that, mostly from China, and runs a $47.3 million kimchi trade deficit.
+Import and export of kimchi | Value (thousand USD) |
|
| -28,577 |
| 19,173 |
| −7,915 |
| −25,919 |
| −40,759 |
| −47,286 |
| −42,585 |
| −39,694 |
| −20,363 |
| −28,154 |
| −4,234 |
| −16,297 |
| −3,659 |
Consumption
In 2021, Koreans collectively consumed 1,965,000 tons of Kimchi, with average Korean consuming 88.3 grams of Kimchi daily. This average has been steadily declining from 109.9 grams per day in 2010, marking a 19.6% decrease. Males tend to consume more Kimchi than females, with an average of 106.6 grams compared to 70.0 grams.
| +Annual Kimchi Consumption
!Year
!Total
!Male
!Female |
| 2010 | 109.9 | 129.0 | 90.8 |
| 2015 | 96.3 | 115.1 | 77.6 |
| 2020 | 88.3 | 106.6 | 70.0 |
| CAGR | −2.16% | −1.89% | −2.57% |
Food regulations
The Canadian Food Inspection Agency has regulations for the commercial production of kimchi. The final product should have a pH ranging from 4.2 to 4.5.
Any low-acidity ingredients with a pH above 4.6, including white daikon and napa cabbage, should not be left under conditions that enable the growth of undesirable microorganisms and require a written illustration of the procedure designed to ensure this is available if requested.
This procedural design should include steps that maintain sterility of the equipment and products used, and the details of all sterilization processes.
The cutoff pH of 4.6 is a value common to many food safety regulations, initially defined because
botulism toxin is not produced below this level.
Gallery
File:Korean cuisine-Gimjang-Preparation for making kimchi-01.jpg|Preparation for making kimchi
File:Korean cuisine-Seongnyu kimchi-Pomegranate kimchi-01.jpg| Seokryu kimchi named after its pomegranate-like shape
File:Koren cuisine-Jang kimchi-Pickled with soy sauce-01.jpg| Jang kimchi, pickled with soy sauce
File:Korean food-Packed kimchi-01.jpg|Displayed manufactured kimchi
File:Oi-sobagi.jpg| Oi-sobagi (cucumber kimchi)
File:Bok choy green kimchi.jpg|Homemade green kimchi, made with bok choy with a green onion and garlic scape-based chili paste
See also
Further reading
