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The Johor Sultanate ( or کسلطانن جوهر; also called the Sultanate of Johor, Johor-Pahang-Riau-Lingga, or the Johor Empire) was founded by Sultan of Malacca Mahmud Shah's son, Alauddin Riayat Shah II in 1528.
Prior to being a sultanate of its own right, Johor had been part of the Malaccan Sultanate before the Portuguese captured its capital in 1511. At its height, the sultanate controlled territory in what is now modern-day Johor, Pahang, Terengganu, territories stretching from the rivers of Klang River to the Linggi River and Tanjung Tuan, situated respectively in Selangor, Negeri Sembilan and Malacca (as an exclave), Singapore, Pulau Tinggi and other islands off the east coast of the Malay Peninsula, the Karimun Regency Islands, the islands of Bintan, Bulang, Lingga Islands and Bunguran Islands, and Bengkalis, Kampar Regency and Siak Regency in Sumatra.R. O. Winstedt (1992). 9789839961461, Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society. ISBN 9789839961461
During the colonial era, the mainland part was administered by the British, and the insular part by the Dutch, thus breaking up the sultanate into Johor and Riau.
Frequent raids on Malacca caused the Portuguese severe hardship which helped to convince the Portuguese to destroy the exiled sultan's forces. A number of attempts were made to suppress the Malay but it was not until 1526 that the Portuguese razed Bintan to the ground. The sultan then retreated to Kampar Regency in Sumatra and died two years later. He left behind two sons, Muzaffar Shah and Alauddin Riayat Shah II.
The Johor Sultanate was founded in 1528 by Sultan Alauddin Riayat Shah II (1528–1564) and was based at Pekan Tua. (2026). 9789382573470, Vij Books India Pvt Ltd. ISBN 9789382573470 Muzaffar Shah went on to establish Perak. Although Alauddin Riayat Shah II and his successor had to contend with attacks by the Portuguese in Malacca and by the Acehnese in Sumatra, they managed to maintain their hold on the Johor Sultanate.
Around the same time, the Aceh Sultanate in northern Sumatra was beginning to gain substantial influence over the Strait of Malacca. With the fall of Malacca to Christians forces, Muslim traders often skipped Malacca in favour of Aceh or to Johor's capital Johor Lama (Kota Batu). Therefore, Malacca and Aceh became direct competitors.
With the Portuguese and Johor frequently in conflict, Aceh launched multiple raids against both sides to tighten its grip over the strait. The rise and expansion of Aceh encouraged the Portuguese and Johor to sign a truce and divert their attention to Aceh. The truce, however, was short-lived and with Aceh severely weakened, Johor and the Portuguese had each other in their sights again. During the reign of Sultan Iskandar Muda, Aceh attacked Johor in 1613 and again in 1615.
The strength of Aceh was brought to an end with a disastrous campaign against Malacca in 1629, when the combined Portuguese and Johor forces managed to destroy the fleet and 19,000 Acehnese troops according to the Portuguese account.Ricklefs, 34*D. G. E. Hall, A History of South-east Asia. London: Macmillan, 1955. Johor later grew stronger and formed an alliance with the Netherlands to attack Portuguese Malacca and conquered it on January 14, 1641, ending the triangular war. In the following month, Iskandar Thani of Aceh died and was succeeded by Queen Taj ul-Alam. Her reign marks the beginning of the decline of Aceh's position as a regional power.
After the sacking of Batu Sawar in 1673, the capital of Johor was frequently moved to avoid the threat of attack from Jambi. All through its history, the rulers of Johor had constantly shifted their centre of power many times in their efforts to keep the sultanate together. Johor Lama (Kota Batu) was initially founded by Alauddin Riayat Shah II but was sacked by the Acehnese in 1564. It was then moved to Seluyut, later back to Johor Lama during the reign of Ali Jalla (1571–1597) which was sacked by the Portuguese in 1587, then to Batu Sawar, and Lingga Islands (again sacked by the Portuguese). This is followed by a period with no fixed capital (places included Tanah Puteh and Makam Tauhid) during the reign of Sultan Abdul Jalil Shah III before he moved it to Batu Sawar in 1640. After Batu Sawar was sacked by Jambi, later capitals included Kota Tinggi, Riau, and Pancur.
The sultan provided all the facility required by the traders. Under the patronage of the Johor elites, traders were protected and prospered.E. M. Jacobs, Merchant in Asia, , 2006, page 207 With a wide range of goods available and favourable prices, Riau boomed. Ships from various places such as Cambodia, Siam, Vietnam and all over the Malay Archipelago came to trade. Bugis ships made Riau the centre for spices. Items found in China such as cloth and opium were traded with locally sourced ocean and forest products, tin, pepper and locally grown uncaria. Duties were low, and cargo could be discharged or stored easily. Traders found they did not need to extend credit, as the business was good.
Like Malacca before it, Riau was also a centre of Islamic studies and teaching. Many orthodox scholars from the Indian Subcontinent and Arabia were housed in special religious hostels, while devotees of Sufism could seek initiation into one of the many Tariqah (Sufi Brotherhood) which flourished in Riau.
Sultan Mahmud II ordered the pregnant wife of a noble, Orang Kaya Megat Sri Rama killed, as she had taken a slice of the royal jackfruit. Subsequently, the sultan was assassinated in 1699 by Megat Sri Rama in revenge, leaving no heirs. The Orang Kayas, who were normally tasked with advising the sultan, went to Muar to meet Sa Akar DiRaja, Raja Temenggong of Muar, Mahmud II's uncle and asked for his counsel. He told them that Bendahara Abdul Jalil should inherit the throne The Family Tree of Raja Temenggung of Muar, traditional sources, Puan Wan Maimunah, 8th descendant of Sa Akar DiRaja which he did as Sultan Abdul Jalil IV. Many, particularly the Orang Laut, felt that the declaration was improper.
The Bugis, who played an important role in defeating Jambi two decades earlier, had huge influence in Johor. Another influential faction in Johor at that time were the Minangkabau. Both the Bugis and the Minangkabau realised that the death of Sultan Mahmud II had provided them with the chance to exert power in Johor. The Minangkabau introduced a Minangkabau prince, Raja Kecil from Siak Regency who claimed he was the posthumous son of Sultan Mahmud II. The prince met with the Bugis and promised the Bugis wealth and political power if they helped the prince to win the throne. However, Raja Kecil broke his promise and installed himself as the new Sultan of Johor (Sultan Abdul Jalil Rahmat Shah) without the knowledge of the Bugis. Sultan Abdul Jalil IV fled to Pahang where he was later killed by an assassin hired by Raja Kecil.
Dissatisfied with Raja Kecil's accession, the son of Sultan Abdul Jalil IV, Raja Sulaiman, asked Daeng Parani of the Bugis to aid him reclaiming the throne. In 1722, Raja Kecil was dethroned by Raja Sulaiman's supporters with the assistance of the Bugis. Raja Sulaiman became the new Sultan of Johor but he was a weak ruler and became a puppet of the Bugis. Daeng Parani's brother, Daeng Merewah, who was made Yam Tuan Muda (crown prince) was the actual controller of Johor. "History", Embassy of Malaysia, Seoul
Throughout the latter reign of Sultan Sulaiman Badrul Alam Shah in the mid-18th century, real power was held by the Bugis. By 1760, several Bugis lineages had intermarried into the royal Johor family and gained great power. These Bugis lineages held the office of Yam Tuan Muda, passing the office back and forth between themselves. The death of Sultan Sulaiman triggered a succession dispute, which was lost by the combined Bendahara-Temenggong court elite to the Bugis faction. From 1760 to 1784, the latter group completely dominated the sultanate. The Johor economy was reanimated under Bugis rule, along with the introduction of Chinese traders. However, by the late 18th century, Engku Muda of the Temenggong faction under Sultan Mahmud Shah III gained power at the expense of the Bugis. Engku Muda's son, Temenggong Abdul Rahman and his descendants would soon be responsible for the growth in prospects for the sultanate.
When Raffles' expedition arrived in Singapore on 29 January 1819 he discovered a small Malay settlement at the mouth of the Singapore River headed by Temenggong Abdul Rahman, son of Daeng Kechil. Though the island was nominally ruled by Johor, the political situation there was extremely murky. The reigning sultan, Abdul Rahman Muazzam Shah, was under the influence of the Dutch and the Bugis. Hence, he would not agree to a British base in Singapore.
However, Abdul Rahman was ruler only because his older brother, Tengku Hussein or Tengku Long, had been away in Pahang getting married when their father died in 1812. He was appointed by the Yam Tuan Muda of Riau, Raja Jaafar because according to him, in a Malay tradition, a person has to be by the dying sultan's side to be considered as the new ruler. However the matter has to be decided by the Bendehara as the "keeper of adat (tradition)". The older brother was not happy with the development.
Raja Jaafar's sister, the queen of the late Sultan, protested her brother's actions with stating, "... Which adat of succession is being followed? Unfair deeds like this will cause the Johor Sultanate be destroyed!". And she held on the royal regalia refusing to surrender it.
Bendehara Ali was made aware of the affairs of the succession and decided to act. He prepared his fleet to go to Riau to "restore the adat". The British upon learning this despatched a fleet and set up a blockade to stop the forces of Bendehara Ali from advancing.
With Temenggong Abdul Rahman's help, Raffles managed to smuggle Hussein, then living in exile on one of the Riau Archipelago, back into Singapore. According to a correspondence between Tengku Hussain and his brother, he left for Singapore out of his concern of his son's safety. There he was captured by Raffles and forced to make a deal. Their agreement stated that the British would acknowledge Tengku Hussein as the "legitimate ruler" of "Johor", and thus Tengku Hussein and the Temenggong would receive a yearly stipend from the British. In return, Tengku Hussein would allow Raffles to establish a trading post in Singapore. This treaty was ratified on 6 February 1819.
The British asked Bendehara Ali to recognise Tengku Hussein as a ruler. However, Bendehara Ali claimed that he had no connection to the events in Singapore, as it is the Temenggong's fief and stated that his loyalty lies only with the Sultan of Johor in Lingga.
Nevertheless, the British successfully sidelined Dutch political influence by proclaiming Hussein as the Sultan of Johor and Singapore to acquire legal recognition in their sphere of influence in Singapore and Peninsular Malaysia. The legitimacy of Sultan Hussein's proclamation as the sultan of Johor and Singapore was controversial to some of the other Malay rulers. As he was placed on the throne by the British and was seen as a puppet ruler. Temenggong Abdul Rahman's position, on the other hand, was strengthened as it was with his co-operation that the British successfully took de facto control of Johor and Singapore; with the backing of the British he gained influence as Raja Ja'afar.Ministry of Culture (Publicity Division), Singapore; Ministry of Communications and Information, Singapore., Singapore: A Ministry of Culture Publication, pg 24 Meanwhile, Sultan Abdul Rahman was installed as the Sultan of Lingga in November 1822, complete with the royal regalia. Sultan Abdul Rahman, who had devoted himself to religion, became contented with his political sphere of influence in Lingga, where his family continued to maintain his household under the administrative direction of Raja Ja'afar who ruled under the auspices of the Dutch.
In 1841, Bendahara Ali appointed Temenggong Daeng Ibrahim to replace his father, who died in 1825. The long interval was due to displeasure of the Bendahara over the affairs of Singapore. Conditions imposed during the appointment included paying a visit of fealty to the ruling Sultan Mahmud Muzaffar in Lingga. Sultan Hussein of Singapore died in 1835 and his prince Tengku Ali wished for the legitimacy granted to Temenggong Ibrahim, by the British and some Malay nobles. The British forwarded the request in 1841 to the Bendahara Ali.
After waiting since 1835 for the 'appointment' as sultan, in 1852 Tengku Ali decided to return Johor to the former Johor-Riau Empire by paying homage to Sultan Mahmud Muzaffar in Lingga. For three years Johor's empire existed once again, except Singapore which was ceded to the British. Worried by the state of affairs, the British called Tengku Ali back to Singapore on the threat of cancelling his pension. In Singapore, he was frequently visited by Sultan Mahmud Muzaffar, and their relationship was cordial.
Bendahara Ali was asked by the Sultan Mahmud Muzaffar about the 1855 treaty.Baginda Omar's private correspondences, National Archives, Kuala Lumpur In his reply, the Bendahara reiterated that the Temenggong was supposed to swear fealty to his majesty and on the behaviour of Tengku Ali, the Bendehara claimed ignorance. He also reiterated that he was not a party to any discussion with the British or Dutch.
The Dutch were also very worried. It seemed that the sultan was acting on his own and would not listen to any of the Dutch-influenced Yam Tuan Muda of Riau and the Bugis nobility. It erupted into an open dispute between Sultan Mahmud Muzaffar and the Bugis nobility over the appointment of new Yam Tuan Muda of Riau. The Bugis' preferred candidate was also the Dutch choice. The sultan resented having another foreign-backed Yam Tuan Muda of Riau. It resulted in a deadlock and the sultan set sail to Singapore to calm down. It was during the Singapore trip that Mahmud Muzaffar was deposed by the Bugis nobility in 1857.
The Johor's empire was decentralised. It was made of four main fiefs and the sultan's territory. The fiefs were Muar and its territories under the Raja Temenggong of Muar; Pahang under the stewardship of the Bendahara; Riau under the control of Yamtuan Muda and mainland Johor and Singapore under the Temenggong. The rest of the empire were directly controlled by the sultan. The sultan resided in Lingga. All the Orang Kayas except Raja Temenggong Muar reported directly to the sultan; Raja Temenggong Muar was a suzerain recognised by the sultan.
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