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Hadhramaut ( ; ) is a geographic region in the South Arabia of the Arabian Peninsula which includes the governorates of Hadhramaut, Shabwah and Mahrah, Dhofar in southwestern Oman, and Sharurah in the Najran Province of Saudi Arabia, and sometimes the Aden Governorate, Abyan and Lahij governorates of Yemen at a more stretched historical definition. The region's people are known as the Hadharem. They formerly spoke Hadramautic, an old South Arabian language, but they now predominantly speak the Hadhrami Arabic of Arabic.
Though the origins of the name are unknown, the name Hadhramaut is traditionally explained as a compound word meaning "death has come" or "court of death," derived either from the Arabic ("he came") plus ("death"), a folk nickname for Amer bin Qahtan, the region's legendary first settler, or from the Biblical Hebrew ("court" or "dwelling") plus ("death") as seen in Hazarmaveth. The name is of ancient origin and is reflected in the name of the modern-day Yemeni governorate of Hadhramaut.
The boundaries of Hadhramaut stretches from the Empty Quarter desert in the north down through its Wadi Hadhramaut and its coastal plain on the Arabian Sea, historically spanning from modern-day Aden in the west across Dhofar to the east but today spans Yemen's Shabwah from the west and Oman's Dhofar to the east. The region once comprised the Qu'aiti and Kathiri sultanates whose lands now form the Hadhramaut governorate, with tribal Hadhrami towns clustered around oasis wells in the Wadi, where they farm wheat, millet, dates, Coconut and coffee, while Bedouin herders graze flocks on the plateau. Physically, the region divides into Inner Hadhramaut,centered on the main wadi and its tributaries, and Coastal Hadhramaut, a narrow plain backed by the steep Jowl escarpment rising to about 1,370 m; to the north the highland plateau ( Haḍbat Ḥaḍramawt) slopes down sharply into the Empty Quarter, creating a transition from lush valley to arid desert.
The name Ḥaḍramawt has also been found within Biblical Hazarmaveth. The name means "court of death" and is composed of two parts: and māweṯ "death". There, Hud was the descendant of ʿĀd, son of Joktan, the purported ancestor and progenitor of the kingdoms. According to tradition, the family of ʿĀd was the first to settle in the region, and when the sons of ʿĀd had died, Amer bin Qahtan, nicknamed "Hadhramaut", came to power.
Though the origins of the name are unknown, there are several scholarly proposals. Kamal Salibi says that the diphthong "-aw" is an incorrect vocalisation, noting that "-ūt" is a frequent ending for place names in the Ḥaḍramawt; given that "Ḥaḍramūt" is the colloquial pronunciation of the name, and also its ancient pronunciation, the correct reading of the name would thus be "place of ḥḍrm". Salibi proposes, then, that the name means "the green place", which is appropriate given its well-irrigated , giving a lushness that contrasts with the surrounding high desert plateau.
Variations of the name are attested to as early as the middle of the 1st millennium BC. The names ḥḍrmt (𐩢𐩳𐩧𐩣𐩩) and ḥḍrmwt (𐩢𐩳𐩧𐩣𐩥𐩩) are found in texts of the Old South Arabian languages (Ḥaḍramitic, Minaean language, Qatabanic and Sabaic), though the second form is not found in any known Ḥaḍramitic inscriptions. In either form, the word itself can be a Toponymy, a tribal name, or the name of the kingdom of Ḥaḍramawt. In the late fourth or early 3rd century BC, Theophrastus gives the name Άδρραμύτα,Theophrastus: Historia Plantarum. 9,4. a direct transcription of the Semitic name into Greek.
The Kingdom, led by King Shahr-al-Khuraymat, allied with the Minaeans and the Kingdom of Qataban and became independent from the Kingdom of Sheba around 330 BCE, during which the Himyarite dynasty ruled the Kingdom of Sheba.Holger Gzella Languages from the World of the Bible p.162 Walter de Gruyter, 2011 Woodard The Ancient Languages of Syria-Palestine and Arabia p.145 Cambridge University Press The relationship between the Kingdom of Hadhramaut and the Himyarite Kingdom remained tense, with both sides waging wars against each other for control of the trade routes and territory in the region.Leonard & Brunschvig The Encyclopaedia of Islam Vol. II, p.183 Early Islamic authors believed the nomadic Kinda tribe that founded a kingdom in central Arabia were originally from Hadhramaut, although distinct from the settled Hadhrami population.
The Hadhrami are referred to as "Chatramotitai" in ancient Greek texts. Hadhramautic texts come later than Sabaean ones, and some Sabaean texts from Hadhramaut are known. Greek, Latin, Sabaean and Hadhramautic texts preserve the names of many kings of Hadhramaut, but there is as yet no definitive chronology of their reigns. Their capital was Shabwa in the northwest corner of the kingdom, along the Incense trade route. Eratosthenes called it a metropolis. It was an important cult centre as well. At first, the religion was South Arabian polytheism, distinguished by the worship of the Babylonian moon god Sin. By the sixth century, the monotheistic cult of Rahmanan was followed in the local temple.
The political history of Hadhramaut is not easy to piece together. Numerous wars involving Hadhramaut are referenced in Sabaean texts. From their inscriptions, the Hadhrami are known to have fortified Libna (now ) against Himyar and to have fortified mwyt ( Ḥiṣn al-Ghurāb حِصْن ٱلْغُرَاب) against the Kingdom of Aksum in the period following the death of Dhū Nuwās. The kingdom ceased to exist by the end of the 3rd century CE, having been annexed by the Himyarite Kingdom. Hadhramaut continued to be used in the full titulature of the kings of Sabaʾ and Dhu Raydān (Himyar).
In the 2nd century CE, Hadhramaut was known for its frankincense and myrrh trade. The incense trade route (southern incense route) that passed through the southern part of Hadhramaut helped the region flourish economically and culturally.Miller Arabic Geography in the Ninth and Tenth Centuries p.37 Indiana University Press, 1999 The Kingdom of Hadhramaut played a significant role in connecting the cultures of Arabia, Mesopotamia, East Africa, and the Roman Empire.Gazetteer of the Persian Gulf, Oman, and Central Arabia p.953 Government of India, 1908
In the 11th century, the Hadhramaut region came under the rule of the Mahdids, who were of Banu Hadhrami origin. They established the Qasimid dynasty, which ruled the region for several centuries.
was reportedly from Hadhramaut. Several prophets before them are believed to have dwelt here, including Hud of ʿĀd. He is thought to be buried at Qabr Hud.9789004161214, Brill Publishers. ISBN 9789004161214
The Hadharem live in densely built towns centered on traditional watering stations along the wadis. Hadharem harvest crops of wheat and millet, tend date palm and coconut groves, and grow some coffee. On the plateau, Bedouins tend sheep and goats. Society is still highly tribal, with the old Sayyid aristocracy, descended from the Islamic prophet Muhammad, traditionally educated, strict in their Islamic observance, and highly respected in religious and secular affairs.
| + Wadis |
| Wadi Hanin |
| Wadi Sad |
| Wadi Na'am |
| Wadi Ja'imah |
| Wadi Thabi |
| Wadi al-Jon |
The governorate's lands also hold mineral resources, notably oil and gold, further enhancing its economic significance. Currently, Hadhramaut produces approximately 260,000 barrels of oil per day; one of the most productive fields is Al Maseelah in the strip (14), which was discovered in 1993. The Yemeni government is keen to develop its oil fields to increase oil production to increase national wealth in response to the requirements of economic and social development in the country. Oil contributes 30–40% of the nation's GDP, over 70% of total state revenues, and more than 90% of the value of the country's exports.
In August 2005, the government gave final approval to three LNG supply agreements, enabling YLNG to award a $2 billion contract to an international consortium to build the country's first liquefaction plant at Balhaf on the Arabian Sea coast. The project is a $3.7 billion investment over 25 years, producing approximately 6.7 million tons of LNG annually, with shipments likely to go to the United States and South Korea. Production of LNG began in October 2009. The Yemen government expects the LNG project to add $350 million to its budget and enable it to develop a petrochemicals industry.This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
Hadramout produces approximately 258.8 thousand barrels per day. One of the prominent oil fields is the Masila Basin Sector (14), discovered in 1993. The Yemeni government is committed to developing its oil fields to increase oil production, aiming to enhance national wealth in response to the country's economic and social development needs. Oil contributes between 30% and 40% of the gross domestic product (GDP) value and represents more than 70% of the total general budget revenues of the state. Moreover, it constitutes more than 90% of the country's export value.
Hadhramaut's strategic location along the ancient incense road has shaped a unique musical tradition. Indian and African musical elements have intermingled with indigenous forms over time. Besides, It has been deeply influenced by Sufism.
The region is renowned for its vast array of over four hundred distinct rhythmic patterns that vary by locality. These rhythms are closely tied to daily activities and special occasions—from planting and fishing to wedding celebrations. A key musical form in the region is al-Dan, a fixed melodic structure in which the melody precedes the lyrics; in contrast, in other songs, the lyrics typically come before the melody. Steps have been taken by the Yemeni government to include the Dan art on UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage, Cultural authorities in Yemen have already received initial approval from UNESCO to consider its inclusion.
Numerous art critics note that the Hadhrami Dan has played a pivotal role in shaping vocal traditions throughout the Arab world, particularly within the Gulf region. This distinctive musical form is regarded as a foundational element for many singing schools, with contemporary artists continuing to draw inspiration from its rich heritage and folkloric melodies.
The Hadhrami Dan has spread to the Arabian Gulf through the migration of Hadhrami musicians who settled in Gulf countries. Over time, local musicians integrated the Hadhrami Dan and other forms of the Dan and other Hadhrami musical forms into their own repertoires. Furthermore, Hadhrami music has significantly influenced the cultural landscapes of regions beyond the Arabian Peninsula, notably in parts of Africa and East Asia.
Several Hadhrami influential musicians and poets played an important role in shaping Hadhrami and the wider Arab music. Abu Bakr Salem Belfkih (1932–2017), for example, modernised al-Dân songs by incorporating contemporary musical instruments, while poets such as Haddad al-Kaff (1910–1970) and Hussein al-Mihdhar (1932–2000) enriched the tradition with their lyrics. Additionally, Mohammed Juma Khan (1903–1963) is celebrated as a pioneer who blended his Punjabis musical influences with local traditions.
Moreover, several prominent non-Hadhrami Arab musicians have also embraced Hadhrami styles. These include Kuwaiti singer Abdallah Al Rowaished; Saudi singers Abdul Majeed Abdullah and Abdel Rab Idris, the latter of Hadhrami origin; as well as Emirati singers Ahlam and Hussain Al Jassmi.
The instruments used in Hadhrami music vary widely, encompassing percussion instruments, string instruments, wind instruments, and simple clapping techniques, often used individually or in combination. This includes notably the Qanbūs, which the Hadhrami migrants spread across the Indian Ocean across the Muslim Southeast Asia areas (notably in Indonesia, Malaysia, and Brunei).
Mukalla, a coastal city in the Hadhramaut region. The city's buildings exhibit intricate facades adorned with geometric patterns, reflecting local craftsmanship. Minarets with delicate latticework rise gracefully, reflecting a blend of architectural and spiritual significance. Mukalla's urban design features narrow alleys and courtyard houses, showcasing adaptation to the arid climate and fostering community interaction. The use of indigenous materials further emphasizes its connection to the local context.
Tarim has a distinctive Hadhrami architecture with filigreed facades and minarets. It has interconnected alleyways and courtyards. Tarim was the Islamic Capital of Culture in 2010. It has the world's tallest mudbrick minaret, located in the Al-Muhdhar Mosque. There are initiatives to protect and restore its mud structures.
Shibam, which is now a UNESCO World Heritage Site, is known for its distinct architecture. The houses of Shibam are all made out of mudbrick, and about 500 of them are Tower block, which rise 5 to 11 stories high, with each floor having one or two rooms. This architectural style was used in order to protect residents from Bedouin attacks. While Shibam has been in existence for an estimated 1,700 years, most of the city's houses originate from the 16th century. Many, though, have been rebuilt numerous times in the last few centuries.
Shibam is often called "the oldest skyscraper city in the world". It is one of the oldest and best examples of urban planning based on the principle of vertical construction. Old Walled City of Shibam, UNESCO World Heritage Centre The city has some of the tallest mud buildings in the world, with some of them over high, thus being early high-rise apartment buildings. In order to protect the buildings from rain and erosion, the walls must be routinely maintained by applying fresh layers of mud. The city is surrounded by a fortified wall, giving it the name "the walled city of Shibam".
Habban District, an ancient city within the Shabwa governorate, boasts a distinct architectural legacy characterized by ingenious mud and straw construction techniques. Notable features include towering mud structures with intricate carvings, reflecting both historical significance and artistic flair. Habban's architecture showcases a blend of utilitarian functionality and aesthetic charm. The enduring mud buildings' diverse architectural styles, including palaces, mosques, and tombs, capture the city's cultural tapestry. Rooted in Yemeni heritage, Habban's architecture is a living embodiment of the intersection between local culture and the built environment, reflecting the city's Wahidi Haban and cultural significance.
The Mashayikh () is another highly regarded group that is second in prestige to the Sada. Like the Sada, they don't bear arms. Men from this group are given the honorific surname Sheikh () and women are given the surname Sheikha () which is different from the term Sheikh () that is used to refer to a tribal chief or a Muslim Ulama. Prominent Mashayikh families include the ‘Amudi (), Ba Wazir (), and Ba ‘Abbad () families.
The Qaba'il () or tribesmen, as in the rest of Arabia, are the predominant class in the population. All the adults carry arms. Some of the tribes have settled towns and villages, others live a bedouin life, keeping however within the territory which is recognised as belonging to the tribe. They are divided into sections or families, each headed by a chief while the head of the tribe is called the muqaddam or sultan. He is the leader in peace and in war, but the tribesmen are not his subjects; he can only rule with their support. Historically, the most powerful tribes in Hadhramaut was the Qu’aiti, a branch of the Yafa'a tribe. Originally invited by the Sada to protect the settled districts against the marauding tribes, they established themselves as rulers of the country, and possessed the coastal districts with the towns of Mukalla and Shihr as well as Shibam in the interior. The family had accumulated great wealth and was in the service of the Nizam of Hyderabad in India as commander of the Arab levy composed of his tribesmen.
The townsmen are the free inhabitants of the towns and villages as distinguished from the Sada and the tribesmen; they do not carry arms, but are the working members of the community, merchants, artificers, cultivators, and servants and are entirely dependent on the tribes and chiefs under whose protection they live. The servile class contains a large African element, brought over formerly when the slave trade nourished on this coast; as all Islamic countries they are well treated, and often rise to positions of trust.
Earlier, several sultans in the Malay Archipelago such as the Malacca Sultanate, Pontianak Sultanate or Sultanate of Siak Sri Indrapura were descents of Hadharem . In the 19th century, Hadhrami businessmen owned many of the maritime armada of barks, brigs, schooners and other ships in the Malay archipelago. In modern times, several Indonesian ministers, including former Foreign Minister Ali Alatas and former Finance Minister Mar'ie Muhammad are of Hadhrami descent, as is the former Prime Minister of East Timor, Mari Alkatiri (2006).Agence France-Presse
The Hadharem have also settled in large numbers along the East African coast, and two former ministers in Kenya, Shariff Nasser and Najib Balala, are of Hadhrami descent. It has also been proved by genetic evidence that the Lemba people of Southern Africa bear some relation to the people of Hadramaut.
Within the Hadhramaut region there has been a historical Jewish population.
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