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A ground-effect vehicle ( GEV), also called a wing-in-ground-effect (WIGE or WIG), ground-effect craft/machine (GEM), wingship, flarecraft, surface effect vehicle or ekranoplan (), is a vehicle that makes use of the ground effect, the aerodynamic interaction between a moving wing and the stationary surface below (land or water). Typically, it glides over a level surface (usually over water). Some models can operate over any flat area such as a lake or flat plains similar to a hovercraft. The term Ground-Effect Vehicle originally referred to any craft utilizing ground effect, including what later became known as hovercraft, in patent descriptions during the 1950s. However, this term came to exclude air-cushion vehicles or hovercraft. GEVs do not include racecars utilizing ground-effect for increasing downforce.
In GEV, the angle of attack is the angle between its chordline (a straight line from the leading edge to the trailing edge) and the ground. On takeoff, airplanes pitch their noses up to increase the angle of attack to reach the ideal of 12-20 degrees (depending on wing design and other factors).
GEVs are not statically supported upon a cushion of pressurized air from a downward-directed fan. Some GEV designs, such as the Russian Lun and Dingo, blew air under the wing using auxiliary engines to assist takeoff; however they still require forward motion to generate sufficient lift to fly, unlike hovercraft, also lacking low-speed hover capability. GEVs also have no contact with the surface when in flight.
On the water the aircraft-like construction of GEVs increases the risk of damage in collisions with surface objects. Furthermore, the limited number of egress points make it more difficult to evacuate the vehicle in an emergency. According to WST, the builders of the WIG craft WSH-500, GEVs furthermore have the advantage of avoiding conflict with ocean currents by flying over them.
Since most GEVs are designed to operate from water, accidents and engine failure typically are less hazardous than in a land-based aircraft, but the lack of altitude control leaves the pilot with fewer options for avoiding collision, and to some extent that negates such benefits. Low altitude brings high-speed craft into conflict with ships, buildings and rising land, which may not be sufficiently visible in poor conditions to avoid. GEVs may be unable to climb over or turn sharply enough to avoid collisions, while drastic, low-level maneuvers risk contact with solid or water hazards beneath. Aircraft can climb over most obstacles, but GEVs are more limited.
In high winds, take-off must be into the wind, which takes the craft across successive lines of waves, causing heavy pounding, stressing the craft and creating an uncomfortable ride. In light winds, waves may be in any direction, which can make control difficult as each wave causes the vehicle to both pitch and roll. The lighter construction of GEVs makes their ability to operate in higher sea states less than that of conventional ships, but greater than the ability of hovercraft or hydrofoils, which are closer to the water surface.
Like conventional aircraft, greater power is needed for takeoff, and, like seaplanes, ground-effect vehicles must get on the step before they can accelerate to flight speed. Careful design, usually with multiple redesigns of hullforms, is required to get this right, which increases engineering costs. This obstacle is more difficult for GEVs with short production runs to overcome. For the vehicle to work, its hull needs to be stable enough longitudinally to be controllable yet not so stable that it cannot lift off the water.
The bottom of the vehicle must be formed to avoid excessive pressures on landing and taking off without sacrificing too much lateral stability, and it must not create too much spray, which damages the airframe and the engines. The Russian ekranoplans show evidence of fixes for these problems in the form of multiple chines on the forward part of the hull undersides and in the forward location of the jet engines.
Finally, limited utility has kept production levels low enough that it has been impossible to amortize development costs sufficiently to make GEVs competitive with conventional aircraft.
A 2014 study by students at NASA's Ames Research Center claims that use of GEVs for passenger travel could lead to cheaper flights, increased accessibility and less pollution.
The International Maritime Organization recognizes three types of GEVs:
At the time of writing, those classes only applied to craft carrying 12 passengers or more, and (as of 2019) there was disagreement between national regulatory agencies about whether these vehicles should be classified, and regulated, as aircraft or as boats.
By the 1960s, the technology started maturing, in large part due to the independent contributions of Rostislav Alexeyev in the Soviet Union and Germany Alexander Lippisch, working in the United States. Alexeyev worked from his background as a ship designer whereas Lippisch worked as an aeronautical engineer. The influence of Alexeyev and Lippisch remains noticeable in most GEVs seen today.
Avro Canada investigated into aircraft with a Coanda-effect propulsion system. Such jets were supposed to create an air cushion below the airframe that will allow them to hover on the ground. In fact, of the only test aircraft built, this was the only mode they could possibly operate from due to stability issues when taking off. The designs were later further developed by the United States, while Convair could have possibly been inspired by them to create a preliminary design of a large ocean-going ground-effect ship called Hydroskimmer.
Some manned and unmanned prototypes were built, ranging up to eight tonnes in displacement. This led to the development of a 550-tonne military ekranoplan of length. The craft was dubbed the Caspian Sea Monster by U.S. intelligence experts, after a huge, unknown craft was spotted on satellite reconnaissance photos of the Caspian Sea area in the 1960s. With its short wings, it looked airplane-like in planform, but would probably be incapable of flight. Although it was designed to travel a maximum of above the sea, it was found to be most efficient at , reaching a top speed of in research flights.
The Soviet ekranoplan program continued with the support of Minister of Defence Dmitriy Ustinov. It produced the most successful ekranoplan so far, the 125-tonne A-90 Orlyonok. These craft were originally developed as high-speed military transports and were usually based on the shores of the Caspian Sea and Black Sea. The Soviet Navy ordered 120 Orlyonok-class ekranoplans, but this figure was later reduced to fewer than 30 vessels, with planned deployment mainly in the Black Sea and Baltic Sea fleets.
A few Orlyonoks served with the Soviet Navy from 1979 to 1992. In 1987, the 400-tonne Lun-class ekranoplan was built as an anti-ship missile launch platform. A second Lun, renamed Spasatel, was laid down as a rescue vessel, but was never finished. The two major problems that the Soviet ekranoplans faced were poor longitudinal stability and a need for reliable navigation.
Minister Ustinov died in 1984, and the new Minister of Defence, Marshal Sokolov, cancelled funding for the program. Only three operational Orlyonok-class ekranoplans (with revised hull design) and one Lun-class ekranoplan remained at a naval base near Kaspiysk.
Since the dissolution of the Soviet Union, ekranoplans have been produced by the Volga Shipyard in Nizhniy Novgorod. Smaller ekranoplans for non-military use have been under development. The CHDB had already developed the eight-seat Volga-2 in 1985, and Technologies and Transport is developing a smaller version called the Amphistar. Beriev proposed a large craft of the type, the Be-2500, as a "flying ship" cargo carrier, but nothing came of the project.
Hanno Fischer took over the works from RFB and created his own company, Fischer Flugmechanik, which eventually completed two models. The Airfisch 3 carried two persons, and the FS-8 carried six persons. The FS-8 was to be developed by Fischer Flugmechanik for a Singapore-Australian joint venture called Flightship. Powered by a V8 Chevrolet automobile engine rated at 337 kW, the prototype made its first flight in February 2001 in the Netherlands. The company no longer exists but the prototype craft was bought by Wigetworks, a company based in Singapore and renamed as AirFish 8. In 2010, that vehicle was registered as a ship in the Singapore Registry of Ships.
The University of Duisburg-Essen is supporting an ongoing research project to develop the Hoverwing.
The consultancy of Günther Jörg, a specialist and insider of German airplane industry from 1963 and a colleague of Alexander Lippisch and Hanno Fischer, was founded with a fundamental knowledge of wing in ground effect physics, as well as results of fundamental tests under different conditions and designs having begun in 1960. For over 30 years, Jörg built and tested 15 different tandem-airfoil flairboats in different sizes and made of different materials.
The following tandem-airfoil flairboat (TAF) types had been built after a previous period of nearly 10 years of research and development:
Bigger concepts are: 25-seater, 32-seater, 60-seater, 80-seater and bigger up to the size of a passenger airplane.
Besides the development of appropriate design and structural configuration, automatic control and navigation systems have been developed. These include altimeters with high accuracy for low altitude flight and lesser dependence on weather conditions. "Phase " have become the choice for such applications beating laser altimeter, isotropic or sonic altimeter.
With Russian consultation, the United States DARPA (DARPA) studied the Aerocon Dash 1.6 wingship.
Universal Hovercraft developed a flying hovercraft, first flying a prototype in 1996. Since 1999, the company has offered plans, parts, kits and manufactured ground effect hovercraft called the Hoverwing.
In Singapore, Wigetworks obtained certification from Lloyd's Register for entry into class. On 31 March 2011, AirFish 8-001 became one of the first GEVs to be flagged with the Singapore Registry of Ships, one of the largest ship registries. Wigetworks partnered with National University of Singapore's Engineering Department to develop higher capacity GEVs.
Burt Rutan in 2011 and Korolev in 2015 showed GEV projects.
In Korea, Wing Ship Technology Corporation developed and tested a 50-seat passenger GEV named the WSH-500. in 2013
Estonian transport company Sea Wolf Express planned to launch passenger service in 2019 between Helsinki and Tallinn, a distance of 87 km taking only half an hour, using a Russian-built ekranoplan. The company ordered 15 ekranoplans with maximum speed of 185 km/h and capacity of 12 passengers, built by Russian RDC Aqualines.
Around mid-2022, the US DARPA launched its Liberty Lifter project, with the goal of creating a low-cost seaplane that would use the ground-effect to extend its range. The program aims to carry 90 tons over , operate at sea without ground-based maintenance, all using low-cost materials.
In May 2024, Ocean Glider announced a deal with UK-based investor MONTE to finance $145m of a $700m deal to begin operating 25 REGENT seagliders between destinations in New Zealand. The order includes 15 12-seater Viceroys and 10 100-seater Monarchs. In March 2025, REGENT completed its first taxi test of a full-sized vehicle that carried passengers. In August 2025, REGENT announced plans to deliver its first Monarchs to United Marine Egypt (UME) Shipping by 2030. The Viceroy completed hydrofoil tests in June 2025, with deliveries expected in 2026–2027.
2020-
In 2021 Brittany Ferries announced that they were looking into using REGENT (Regional Electric Ground Effect Naval Transport) ground effect craft "REGENT Viceroy" for cross English Channel services. Southern Airways Express also placed firm orders for seagliders with intent to operate them along Florida's east coast.
China
In 2025, reports of a Chinese 'Ekranoplan' surfaced in the Naval News magazine. According to the magazine, the aircraft features a flying boat hull with a distinctive T-tail arrangement with two vertical stabilizers. This configuration is not found on regular aircraft but has been used on several Ekranoplans including some in China. It appears to have a comparatively short wingspan and large tail, typical of Ekranoplans. Four jet engines are mounted above the wing. These have slightly flattened nozzles suggesting downward angled thrust. This too is indicative of an Ekranoplan design. The engines may have a second scoop intake above the main intake, but the photo’s angle does not show this fully. This has caused significant concerns in Taiwan, which believes that this craft is essentially being built to ferry forces across the Taiwan Strait, during an invasion by the People's Liberation Army of China.
See also
Notes
Citations
Bibliography
(2025). 9783540406457, Springer-Verlag and Heidelberg GmbH & Co. K.. ISBN 9783540406457
(2025). 9781857803327, Ian Allan Publishing. ISBN 9781857803327.
(2025). 9780070423138, McGraw-Hill Professional. ISBN 9780070423138
Kirill V. Rozhdestvensky (2025). 9783540662778, Springer-Verlag and Heidelberg GmbH & Co. K.. ISBN 9783540662778
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