Āśrama () is a system of stages of life discussed in Hinduism texts of the ancient and medieval eras.[Patrick Olivelle (1993), The Āśram System: The History and Hermeneutics of a Religious Institution, Oxford University Press, , pages 1–29, 84–111] The four asramas are: Brahmacharya (student), Grihastha (householder), Vanaprastha (forest walker/forest dweller), and Sannyasa (renunciate).[
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The Asrama system is one facet of the Dharma concept in Hinduism.[ It is also a component of the ethical theories in Indian philosophy, where it is combined with four proper goals of human life ( Purushartha), for fulfilment, happiness and spiritual liberation.][ Moreover, since the four asramas can be seen as the framework of an influential life-span model, they are also part of an indigenous developmental psychology which from its ancient beginnings until today has shaped the orientations and goals of many people, especially in India.]
Asrama system
The four asramas system aimed to integrate renunciation into Brahmanical society around the fourth century BCE. Initially, it offered young adults four lifelong paths post-vedic initiation:
Brahmacharya (student),
Gṛhastha (householder),
Vanaprastha (forest walker/forest dweller), and
Sannyasa (renunciate). Documented in early Dharmasutras (2nd-3rd centuries BCE), it allowed free choice among these paths, which were viewed as permanent vocations. The term asrama was coined to describe these lifestyles, particularly those of exceptional Brahmins dedicated to austerities and rituals.
Under the Asrama system, the human lifespan was divided into four periods.[Chakkarath, Pradeep (2005), pp. 31-54.][Rama, p. 467.] The goal of each period was the fulfilment and development of the individual. The classical system, in the Āśrama Upanishad, the Vaikhanasa Dharmasutra and the later Dharmashastra, presents these as sequential stages of human life and recommends ages for entry to each stage, while in the original system presented in the early Dharmasutras the Asramas were four alternative available ways of life, neither presented as sequential nor with age recommendations.[Barbara Holdrege (2004), "Dharma", in The Hindu World (Editors: Sushil Mittal and Gene Thursby), Routledge, , page 231]
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Brahmacharya
(Student's life) | Birth–25 | Upanayana at entry.[Vivekjivandas, Sadhu. Hinduism: An Introduction – Part 2. (Swaminarayan Aksharpith: Ahmedabad, 2010) p. 113. ][Brian Smith (1986), Ritual, Knowledge, and Being: Initiation and Veda Study in Ancient India , Numen, Vol. 33, Fasc. 1, pages 65–89] Samavartana at exit.[R Pandey (1969), Hindu Saṁskāras: Socio-Religious Study of the Hindu Sacraments (2nd Ed.), Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, ] |
Grihastha
(household life) | 25–50 | Hindu wedding at entry. |
Vanaprastha
(retired life) | 50–75 | The retirement stage, where a person handed over household responsibilities to the next generation, took an advisory role, and gradually withdrew from the world.[Ralph Tench and William Sun (2014), Communicating Corporate Social Responsibility: Perspectives and Practice, , page 346] Vanaprastha stage was a transition phase from a householder's life with its greater emphasis on Artha and Kama (wealth, security, pleasure and desires) to one with greater emphasis on Moksha (spiritual liberation).[Albertina Nugteren (2005), Belief, Bounty, And Beauty: Rituals Around Sacred Trees in India, Brill Academic, , pages 13–21][Saraswathi et al (2010), Reconceptualizing Lifespan Development through a Hindu Perspective, in Bridging Cultural and Developmental Approaches to Psychology (Editor: Lene Arnett Jensen), Oxford University Press, , page 280-286] | |
Sannyasa
(renounced life) | 75+
(or anytime) | The stage was marked by renunciation of material desires and prejudices, represented by a state of disinterest and detachment from material life, generally without any meaningful property or home (ascetic), and focused on moksha, peace and simple spiritual life.[S. Radhakrishnan (1922), "The Hindu Dharma", International Journal of Ethics, 33(1): 1–22][DP Bhawuk (2011), "The Paths of Bondage and Liberation", in Spirituality and Indian Psychology, Springer, , pages 93–110] Anyone could enter this stage after completing the Brahmacharya stage of life. | |
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Asrama and Purushartha
The Asramas system is one facet of the complex
Dharma concept in Hinduism.
[Alban Widgery (1930), The Principles of Hindu Ethics , International Journal of Ethics, 40(2): 237–239. .] It is integrated with the concept of Purushartha, or four proper aims of life in Hindu philosophy, namely,
Dharma (piety, morality, duties),
Artha (wealth, health, means of life),
Kama (love, relationships, emotions) and
Moksha (liberation, freedom, self-realization).
[ Each of the four Asramas of life are a form of personal and social environment, each stage with ethical guidelines, duties and responsibilities, for the individual and for the society. Each Asrama stage places different levels of emphasis on the four proper goals of life, with different stages viewed as steps to the attainment of the ideal in Hindu philosophy, namely Moksha.][Alban Widgery (1930), The Principles of Hindu Ethics , International Journal of Ethics, 40(2): 239–240. .]
Neither ancient nor medieval texts of India state that any of the first three Asramas must devote itself solely to a specific goal of life ( Purushartha).[Patrick Olivelle (1993), The Āśram System: The History and Hermeneutics of a Religious Institution, Oxford University Press, , pages 216–219] The fourth stage of Sannyasa is different, and the overwhelming consensus in ancient and medieval texts is that Sannyas stage of life must entirely be devoted to Moksha aided by Dharma.[
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Dharma is held primary for all stages. Moksha is the ultimate noble goal, recommended for everyone, to be sought at any stage of life. On the other two, the texts are unclear.[ With the exception of Kamasutra, most texts make no recommendation on the relative preference on Artha or Kama, that an individual must emphasise in what stage of life. The Kamasutra states,][
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See also
Citations
General and cited references
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Chakkarath, Pradeep (2005). "What Can Western Psychology Learn from Indigenous Psychologies? Lessons from Hindu Psychology". In W. Friedlmeier, P. Chakkarath, & B. Schwarz (Eds.), Culture and Human Development: The Importance of Cross-cultural Research to the Social Sciences (pp. 31–51). New York: Psychology Press.
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Chakkarath, Pradeep (2013). "Indian Thoughts on Psychological Human Development". In G. Misra (Ed.), Psychology and Psychoanalysis in India (pp. 167–190). New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers.
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Further reading
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Alain Daniélou (1993), Virtue, Success, Pleasure, and Liberation,
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Patrick Olivelle (1993), The Āśrama System: The History and Hermeneutics of a Religious Institution, Oxford University Press, ,
External links
