Carmine ()also called cochineal (when it is extracted from the Cochineal), cochineal extract, crimson Lake pigment, or carmine lake is a pigment of a bright-red color obtained from the aluminium complex derived from carminic acid.
Etymology
The English word "carmine" is derived from the French word
carmin (12th century), from
Medieval Latin carminium, from
Persian language قرمز
qirmiz ("crimson") and from Armenian կարմիր/carmir ("red"), which both derive from
Middle Persian carmir ("red, crimson").
The Persian term
carmir is likely cognate with
Sanskrit krimiga ("insect-produced"), from
krmi ("worm, insect"). The Persian word for "worm, insect" is
kirm, and in
Iran (Persia) the red colorant carmine was extracted from the bodies of dead female insects such as
Kermes vermilio and
cochineal.
The form of the term may also have been influenced in Latin by
minium ("
red lead,
cinnabar"), said to be of Iberian origin.
The word "carmine" has been used as a color name as early as 1799.
History
Female
Dactylopius coccus (cochineal) insects were used for their red coloring power as early as 700 BC. American civilizations (from the American continent) crushed the bugs present on cacti to extract the carmine they contain. Carmine pigment was extensively used by the
Aztec civilization to dye textiles. It was imported later to Europe during the 16th century.
Red is a color often associated with power and social status. Through the centuries, red has been worn by tribal chiefs, kings and queens, and military officers.
Cochineal was a major source of income for the Spanish Crown. By weight, it was a far more valuable commodity than sugar, making it especially lucrative for overseas trade. As part of the triangular trade, its production and consumption were intertwined with slavery.
In European markets, the Spanish Crown had a monopoly on cochineal until 1820 when the French learned to cultivate them. Later, German and British scientists created a synthetic red dye that competed with carmine. The combination of these factors contributed to the end of the Spanish monopoly and considerably lowered the price of carmine, making it accessible to a wider audience.
Production
The pigment is produced from
carminic acid, which is extracted from some
such as the
cochineal scale (
Prima), and certain
Porphyrophora species (Armenian cochineal and
Polish cochineal). Attempts have been made to farm cochineal.
Carmine is a colorant used in the manufacture of artificial flowers, paints, crimson ink, rouge and other cosmetics, and some medications.
Synthetic carminic acid is complex and expensive to produce. Therefore, natural cochineal carmine is predominant on the market. Its instability presents challenges for use in art and textiles, but this is less of a hindrance in the context of cosmetics. As its synthetic production is still largely experimental, ongoing research focuses on improving the efficiency and sustainability of the synthetic pathways.
Preparation
To prepare carmine, the powdered scale insect bodies are boiled in an
ammonia or
sodium carbonate solution. After separating the insoluble matter, the extract is treated with
alum to precipitate the red solid. This precipitate is called "carmine lake" or "crimson lake". Purity of color is ensured by the absence of
iron. Stannous chloride,
citric acid,
borax, or
gelatin may be added to modify the precipitation. The traditional crimson color is affected not only by carminic acid but also by choice of its chelating metal salt ion. For shades of purple,
limewater is added to the alum.
To obtain of red dye, 70,000 cochineal insects are required.
File:Cochinel Zapotec nests.jpg|Zapotec cochineal on Opuntia ficus-indica host cacti
File:Pseudorhabdosynochus morrhua.jpg|upright|Use of carmine as a staining agent in histology (here on a flatworm)
Identification and characteristics
Scientists can detect the presence of carminic acid through liquid chromatography and a diode array detector combined with a mass spectrometer with a quadruple-time-of-flight analyzer (LC-DAD-QTOF). The process is used for identifying carmine in works of art.
Scientific methods can also distinguish among the different species of cochineal used in artworks.
Wavelength
As confirmed by
Spectroscopy, carmine reflects mostly red light. Its
hue ranges from a vibrant red with a dominant wavelength of 612 nm to a dark purplish red with a complementary wavelength of 497 nm.
Hue
The hue of carmine is dependent on the metallic ions present in the pigment. For instance, carmine combined with zinc or aluminium yields a crimson hue.
Translucence
The translucence of carmine depends on its binding medium. Mixed with oil, carmine remains translucent and adequate for glazes. Combined with
tempera or glue, carmine turns opaque.
Value
On the Munsell color scale, carmine's value can range between 3.32 and 6.35.
Permanence
Carmine is a fugitive color, whose fading is influenced by different factors such as light, humidity, or even the color of the glass of a frame.
It is highly sensitive to light and tends to fade into brownish tones.
In painting, its durability depends on the type of binding. For instance, pigments are more stable if mixed with linseed oil rather than with gum arabic.
Notable occurrences in art
Carmine was used in dyeing textiles and in painting since antiquity. Numerous examples are found among Inca remains such as textile artifacts. The Aztecs also used carmine.
In Europe, the 16th century Italian painter Tintoretto used carmine in several of his paintings, the most notable being Portrait of Vincenzo Morosini (1575-80) and Christ Washing the Feet of the Disciples(1575-80).
Carmine was also used by nineteenth-century artists such as Vincent van Gogh in Bedroom in Arles (1889). The floor of the bedroom is painted with carmine cochineal lake, geranium lake and indigo. This produced a reddish color, which over time changed to blueish.
Analysis of J. M. W. Turner's palettes found that he used cochineal carmine.
File:Slit tapestry shirt fragment, Peru, Chancay, central coast, c. 1000-1470 AD, alpaca wool dyed with saffron, cochineal, and indigo - Krannert Art Museum, UIUC - DSC06400.jpg|Tapestry shirt fragment, Peru, Chancay, c. 1000-1470 AD
File:Jacopo Tintoretto - Christ washing the Feet of the Disciples - Google Art Project.jpg|Jacopo Tintoretto, Christ Washing the Feet of The Disciples (1575-80)
File:Jacopo Tintoretto - Portrait of Vincenzo Morosini - WGA22697.jpg|Jacopo Tintoretto, Portrait of Vincenzo Morosini (1575-80)
File:Vincent's Bedroom in Arles - My Dream.jpg|Vincent Van Gogh, Bedroom at Arles (1889)
File:The Fighting Temeraire, JMW Turner, National Gallery.jpg|JMW Turner, The Fighting Temeraire (1839)
Other uses
Cartography
Carmine red has been used in military cartography at least since the 17th century. Sébastien Le Prestre de Vauban, General Engineer of France, recommended the use of this red pigment to represent fortifications (ramparts, wood timbers, and brick buildings being reddish).
This made buildings more distinct on maps
Cosmetics
Carmine is present in numerous cosmetics because of its red color. This use has continued from antiquity to the present. It can be found in lipstick, eye shadow, nail polish. It may cause allergies.
Histology
Carmine can be used in
histology, as
Best's carmine to stain
glycogen,
mucicarmine to stain acidic mucopolysaccharides, and
carmalum to stain
cell nucleus. In these applications, it is applied together with a
mordant, usually an
aluminium salt.
Medicine
Cochineal, the insect used to make carmine, also has medical properties that were exploited by the Aztecs. It is said to help cure wounds when mixed with vinegar and applied to lesions. Aztecs used it to clean teeth.
Regulations for use in foods
United States
In January 2006, the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) evaluated a proposal that would require food products containing carmine to list it by name on the ingredient label.
[Docket No. 1998P–0724, formerly 98P–0724; RIN 0910–AF12. Listing of Color Additives Exempt From Certification; Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Labeling: Cochineal Extract and Carmine Declaration.] It was also announced that the FDA will separately review the ingredient labels of prescription drugs that contain colorings derived from carmine. A request from the Center for Science in the Public Interest urging the FDA to require ingredient labels to explicitly state that carmine is derived from insects and may cause severe allergic reactions and anaphylactic shock was declined by the FDA.
Food industries were aggressively opposed to the idea of writing "insect-based" on the label, and the FDA agreed to allow "cochineal extract" or "carmine".
European Union
In the
European Union (EU), the use of carmine in foods is regulated under the European Commission's directives governing food additives in general
and food dyes in particular
and listed under the names
Cochineal,
Carminic acid,
Carmines and
Natural Red 4 as additive E 120 in the
E number.
The directive governing food dyes approves the use of carmine for certain groups of foods only
[a list of approved uses is included in Annexes I and III of EU-Directive 94/36 [2] ] and specifies a maximum amount which is permitted or restricts it to the
quantum satis.
The EU-Directive 2000/13/EC
, EFSA has changed the way they allow use of Carmine E120 for pharmaceutical products. The EFSA had raised concerns over the increasing number of allergic reactions to carmine derived from insects (E120.360), when used within the British Pharmacopoeia. Pharmaceutical products which had previously contained insect-derived carmine, have been replaced with a synthesized version of the food colorant. Internal studies have shown that the new formulations of popular anti-nausea and weight-gain liquid medication had a significantly lower risk in terms of allergic reactions. The new formulation is known to be of plant origin, using calcium oxide to gauge color depth.
See also
Sources
- Attribution
Further reading
External links
