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Aisha bint Abi Bakr () was a seventh century commander, politician,

(1995). 9780231079983, Columbia University Press. .
and the third and youngest wife of Islamic prophet Muhammad.

Aisha had an important role in early Islamic history, both during Muhammad's life and after his death. In tradition, Aisha is portrayed as scholarly, intelligent and inquisitive. She contributed to the spread of Muhammad's message and served the community for 44 years after his death.

Aisha narrated 2,210 throughout her life,Islamyat: a core text for students. not just on matters related to Muhammad's private life, but also on topics such as inheritance, , prayer, and eschatology. Her intellect and knowledge in various subjects, including poetry and medicine, were highly praised by early scholars and luminaries such as al-Zuhri and her student Urwa ibn al-Zubayr.

Her father, (), became the first to succeed Muhammad, and after two years was succeeded by (). Aisha played a leading role in opposing some policies of the third caliph (), though she also opposed those responsible for his assassination. She refused to recognize Uthman's successor () and joined al-Zubayr ibn al-Awwam and Talha ibn Ubayd Allah. She was defeated in the Battle of the Camel during the , after which she retired in Medina, was pardoned by Ali and did not oppose caliph Mu'awiya (). She participated in the Battle of the Camel by giving speeches and leading troops on the back of her camel. Because of her involvement in this battle, have a generally negative view of Aisha, although Ali pardoned her after defeating her army. In , Aisha is viewed as a leading and a teacher of several companions and the .


Early life
Aisha was born in .
"Aisha was born at the beginning of the fourth year of prophethood"
i.e., the year 613–614
She was the daughter of Abu Bakr and , two of Muhammad's . No sources offer much more information about Aisha's childhood years.


Marriage to Muhammad
Muhammad reportedly stated that he saw Aisha twice in his dreams, being carried in a silk cloth by an angel who told him she would be his wife. He believed that if the dreams were from God, they would come true. Following the death of his first wife, Khadija bint Khuwaylid, his aunt Khawlah bint Hakim suggested that he marry Aisha. Aisha's father was at first unsure about marrying his daughter to Muhammad; he thought they were brothers. Muhammad clarified that they were merely brothers in religion, and it was legal for him to marry Aisha. Aisha's engagement to Jubayr ibn Mut'im, a boy close to her age, was then annulled. Orientalist W. Montgomery Watt suggests that Muhammad hoped to strengthen his ties with Abu Bakr; the strengthening of ties commonly served as a basis for marriage in Arabian culture.

All extant hadiths agree that Aisha was married to Muhammad in Mecca, but that the marriage was not consummated until the month of following his to Medina, in April 623. Some classical sources, however, state that the marriage itself took place in Medina, without mentioning any delay in consummation.


Age at Marriage and Consummation
Classical Islamic sources state that Aisha was six at the time of her marriage with Muhammad and nine at the time of its . In a hadith recorded in , Aisha recalls being married at the age of six. Ibn Sa'd's biography holds her age at the time of marriage as between six and seven, and gives her age at consummation to be nine while 's biography of Muhammad suggests she may have been ten years old at consummation. notes Aisha to have stayed with her parents after the marriage and consummated the relationship at nine years of age since she was young and sexually immature at the time of marriage; however, elsewhere Tabari appears to suggest that she was born during the (before 610 C.E), which would translate to an age of about twelve or more at marriage.

In Islamic literature, the young age of her marriage did not draw any significant discourse; nonetheless, Spellberg and Ali find the very mention of her age to be atypical of early Muslim biographers, and hypothesize a connotation to her virginity and, more than that, religious purity. Her age did not interest later Muslim scholars either, and went unremarked-upon even by medieval and early-modern Christian polemicists. Early writers, even in their condescending approach towards Muhammad and Islam, were primarily concerned with Muhammad's embrace of polygamy and the ethics of marrying for political causes; the few, who discussed Aisha's age chose to explain the age-gap — without any condemnation — by citing the contemporary understanding of the Orient as a hot place, that promulgated sexually deviant practices.

Beginning late nineteenth century, with the East and its alleged immoralities subject to increasing opprobrium, the colonizing powers sought to regulate the age of consent. As such efforts ran into conflicts with local forms of , Aisha's age at marriage — and the involved Prophetic precedent — became the predominant explanation in explaining the backwardness of Muslim societies and their reticence to reforms. In response, some Muslims chose to align themselves with the projects of modernization and re-calculated her age — using deft stratagems of omission and commission — to fix it at early adolescence, but conservatives rejected such revisionist readings since they flew in the face of .

From mid-20th century, amidst growing concerns of Islamic extremism, as Muslim societies and Islam itself came under renewed scrutiny, pointed criticisms of Aisha's young age at marriage began to be abundant; this has since prompted many Muslim scholars to contextualize the traditionally accepted age of Aisha with renewed vigor emphasizing on cultural relativism, anachronism, the political dimensions of the marriage, Aisha's non-ordinary physique etc. Since the late-twentieth century, polemicists have used Aisha's age to accuse Muhammad of and to explain a reported higher prevalence of in Muslim societies.


Personal life

Relationship with Muhammad
In most , Khadija bint Khuwaylid is described as Muhammad's most beloved and favored wife; Sunni tradition places Aisha as second only to Khadija. There are several hadiths, or stories or sayings of Muhammad, that support this belief. One relates that when a companion asked Muhammad, "who is the person you love most in the world?" he responded, "Aisha." Others relate that Muhammad built Aisha's apartment so that her door opened directly into the mosque, and that she was the only woman with whom Muhammad received revelations. They bathed in the same water, and he prayed while she lay stretched out in front of him.

Various traditions reveal the mutual affection between Muhammad and Aisha. He would often just sit and watch her and her friends play with dolls, and on occasion, he would even join them. Leila Ahmed argues, "Aisha must have felt reasonably equal to and unawed by this prophet of God, for his announcement of a revelation permitting him to enter into marriages disallowed other men drew from her the retort, 'It seems to me your Lord hastens to satisfy your desire!'" Furthermore, Muhammad and Aisha had a strong intellectual relationship.


The Necklace Incident
When and his followers carried out a raid on the tribe, he brought along Aisha, who was 13 years old at the time. She was carried in a closed on the back of a camel. Aisha recounted that when the raiding party was resting at night on the way home to from the successful operation, she went out to relieve herself. After doing so and returning to her litter, she realized that her necklace was missing, so she traced her way back to look for it. By the time she found it, the convoy had already left, thinking she was in the litter. Assuming that they would notice her absence and return to look for her, Aisha decided to stay where she was.

Aisha related that Safwan ibn Muattal, a young Muslim from the raiding party, had lagged behind for some reason. On his solo return journey to Medina, he came across Aisha sleeping on the ground by herself. He addressed her, let her ride on his camel while he guided it, and escorted her home to Medina. It was not until the morning that Muhammad's convoy realized that Aisha was not in her litter. And later, when they were taking a break from the hot midday sun, Aisha and Safwan ran into them. A rumor accusing Aisha of committing adultery with Safwan spread. Moreover, it was said that she had conversed with him several times before. This rumor of adultery, if true, could have led to Aisha being stoned to death.

Upon their arrival in Medina, Aisha fell ill and sensed that Muhammad was uncharacteristically cold toward her. She only learned of the rumor some three weeks later when Umm Mistah told her on their way back from defecating in an open field at night, as was customary for Muslim women at that time. Aisha subsequently went to her mother, asking what the people were talking about, and she replied, "Daughter, be at peace, for I swear by God that no beautiful woman is married to a man who has other wives, but that these other wives would find fault with her." So Aisha cried all night long.

Muhammad, despite his fondness for Aisha, was unsure of her innocence. He asked Usama ibn Zayd and for their opinions. Usama vouched for Aisha's innocence, but Ali said, "Women abound; you can easily find a substitute. Ask her slave; she might reveal the truth." When the slave girl arrived, Ali beat her severely and said, "Mind you tell the apostle the truth." But her answer was that she knew only good things about Aisha, with the single exception that when Aisha was entrusted with watching over a dough, she dozed off and allowed a sheep to eat it.

Muhammad later visited Aisha at her parents' house and advised her to confess if she had sinned, as God was merciful towards those who seek repentance. It had been more than a month since Aisha had returned alone with Safwan. Despite Muhammad's advice, Aisha refused to apologize as it would indicate guilt. She told Muhammad that she could find no better parallel for her current situation than that of Joseph's father, who had endured disbelief despite telling the truth and had no other choice but to remain patient. Shortly thereafter, Muhammad experienced a trance and received verses (Quran 24:11–15) that confirmed Aisha's innocence.


Death of Muhammad
Aisha remained Muhammad's favorite wife throughout his life. When he became ill and suspected that he was probably going to die, he began to ask his wives whose apartment he was to stay in next. They eventually figured out that he was trying to determine when he was due with Aisha, and they then allowed him to retire there. He remained in Aisha's apartment until his death, and his last breath was taken as he lay in Aisha's arms.


Political career
Aisha's importance to revitalizing the Arab tradition and leadership among the Arab women highlights her magnitude within Islam. Aisha became involved in the politics of early Islam and the first three caliphate reigns: Abu Bakr, ‘Umar, and ‘Uthman. During a time in Islam when women were not expected or wanted to contribute outside the household, Aisha delivered public speeches, became directly involved in a war and even battles, and helped both men and women to understand the practices of Muhammad.


Role during caliphate

Role during first and second caliphates
After Muhammad's death in 632, Abu Bakr was appointed as the first caliph. This matter of succession to Muhammad is extremely controversial to the who believe that Ali had been appointed by Muhammad to lead while Sunni maintain that the public elected Abu Bakr. Abu Bakr had two advantages in achieving his new role: his long personal friendship with Muhammad and his role as a father-in-law. As caliph, Abu Bakr was the first to set guidelines for the new position of authority.

Aisha garnered more special privileges in the Islamic community for being known as both a wife of Muhammad and the daughter of the first caliph. Being the daughter of Abu Bakr tied Aisha to honorable titles earned from her father's strong dedication to Islam. For example, she was given the title of al-siddiqa bint al-Siddiq, meaning 'the truthful woman, daughter of the truthful man', a reference to Abu Bakr's support of the Isra and Mi'raj.

In 634 Abu Bakr fell sick and was unable to recover. Before his death, he appointed ‘Umar, one of his chief advisers, as the second caliph. Throughout ‘Umar's time in power Aisha continued to play the role of a consultant in political matters.


First Fitna
under . The divided phase relates to the Rashidun Caliphate of during the .

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In 656, Uthman's house was put under siege by about 1000 rebels. Eventually the rebels broke into the house and murdered Uthman, provoking the .See:

  • P.19 After killing Uthman, the rebels asked Ali to be the new caliph, although Ali was not involved in the murder of Uthman according to many reports. Ali reportedly initially refused the , agreeing to rule only after his followers persisted.

After Ali declined to immediately punish those accused of involvement in Uthman's assassination, Aisha publicly criticized him for failing to avenge Uthman's death. Among those who supported her position were Abd-Allah ibn Aamir Hadhrami, the former governor of Mecca during Uthman's reign, and several prominent members of the .

Aisha, along with an army including al-Zubayr ibn al-Awwam and Talha ibn Ubayd Allah, confronted Ali's supporters near Basra, calling for the prosecution of those accused of involvement in Uthman's assassination, some of whom were believed to be among Ali's ranks. According to some Shia sources, after capturing Basra, her forces allegedly executed Hakim ibn Jabala and hundreds of his supporters.

Ali rallied supporters and fought Aisha's forces near Basra in 656. The battle is known as the Battle of the Camel, after the fact that Aisha directed her forces from a on the back of a large camel. Aisha's forces were defeated and an estimated 10,000 Muslims were killed in the battle, considered the first engagement where Muslims fought Muslims.

After the defeat of the opposition forces at the Battle of the Camel, Ali reportedly reproached Aisha for her role in the conflict but granted her a pardon. He arranged for her return to Medina under military escort led by her brother, Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr, who was one of his commanders. Aisha subsequently retired from political life and remained in Medina. According to some sources, Ali also arranged a pension for her as a gesture of respect.

Although she retired to Medina, her earlier opposition to the caliphate of Ali did not bring an end to the First Fitna.


Contributions to Islam and influence
After 25 years of a monogamous relationship with his first wife, Khadija bint Khuwaylid, Muhammad participated in nine years of , marrying at least nine further wives. Muhammad's subsequent marriages were depicted purely as political matches rather than unions of sexual indulgence. In particular, Muhammad's unions with Aisha and Hafsa bint Umar associated him with two of the most significant leaders of the early Muslim community, Aisha's father, Abu Bakr, and Hafsa's father, ‘Umar ibn al-Khattāb.

Aisha's marriage has given her significance among many within Islamic culture, becoming known as the most learned woman of her time. She was also recognized during her lifetime as Muhammad’s favorite. When Muhammad married Aisha in her youth, she was accessible "...to the values needed to lead and influence the sisterhood of Muslim women." Aisha conveyed ideas expressing Muhammad's practice (sunnah). She expressed herself as a role model to women, which can also be seen within some traditions attributed to her. The traditions regarding Aisha habitually opposed ideas unfavorable to women in efforts to elicit social change.

According to :

Her intellectual contributions regarding the verbal texts of Islam were in time transcribed into written form, becoming the official history of Islam. Jawed Anwar also writes that Aisha was regarded as the most reliable source in the teachings of hadith. Aisha's authentication of Muhammad's ways of prayer and his recitation of the Qur'an allowed for the development of knowledge of his sunnah of praying and reading verses of the Quran.


Political influence
Spellberg argues that Aisha's political influence helped promote her father, Abu Bakr, to the caliphate after Muhammad's death.

After the defeat at the Battle of the Camel, Aisha retreated to Medina and became a teacher. Upon her arrival in Medina, Aisha retired from her public role in politics. Her discontinuation of public politics did not stop her political influence completely. Privately, Aisha continued influencing those intertwined in the Islamic political sphere. Among the Islamic community, she was known as an intelligent woman who debated law with male companions. Aisha was also considered to be the embodiment of proper rituals while partaking in the , a journey she made with several groups of women. For the last two years of her life, Aisha spent much of her time telling the stories of Muhammad, hoping to correct false passages that had become influential in formulating Islamic law. Due to this, Aisha's political influence continues to impact Muslims.


Death
Aisha died at her home in Medina on 17 Ramadan 58 AH (16 July 678). She was 67 years old.
"‘A’isha was eighteen years of age at the time when the Holy Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) died and she remained a widow for forty-eight years till she died at the age of sixty-seven. She saw the rules of four caliphs in her lifetime. She died in Ramadan 58 AH during the caliphate of Mu‘awiya..."
led her funeral prayer after the (night) prayer, and she was buried at .


See also
  • List of people related to Quranic verses
  • Muhammad's wives
  • The Jewel of Medina (fictional work based loosely on Aisha's existence)
  • Shia view of Aisha


Notes

Citations

Sources


Further reading
  • (2025). 9780192800947, Oxford University Press. .
  • (2025). 9782753300552, Editions SW Télémaque.
  • (2025). 9781565847521, New Press.
    (translated from the French by Anne Carter)

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