Shakya (Pali: ; Sanskrit: ) was an ancient Indo-Aryan clan of the northeastern region of India, whose existence is attested during the Iron Age. The Shakyas were organised into a (an Aristocracy Oligarchy republic), also known as the Shakya Republic. The Shakyas were on the periphery, both geographically and culturally, of the eastern Indo-Gangetic Plain in the Greater Magadha cultural region.
Location
The Shakyas lived in the
Terai – an area south of the foothills of the
Himalayas and north of the Indo-Gangetic Plain with their neighbors to the west and south being the kingdom of
Kosala, their neighbors to the east across the
Rohni River being the related
Koliya tribe, while on the northeast they bordered on the Mallakas of
Kushinagar. To the north, the territory of the Shakyas stretched into the Himalayas until the forested regions of the mountains, which formed their northern border.
The capital of the Shakyas was the city of Kapilavastu.
Etymology
The name of the Shakyas is attested primarily in the
Pali forms and , and the
Sanskrit form .
The Shakyas' name was derived from the Sanskrit root (शक्) ( (शक्नोति), more rarely (शक्यति) or (शक्यते)) meaning "to be able", "worthy", "possible", or "practicable".
The name of the Shakyas was also derived from the name of the or tree,
History
Origins
Munda origin
The Shakyas were an eastern sub-Himalayan ethnic group on the periphery, both geographically and culturally, of the eastern Gangetic plain in the
Greater Magadha cultural region. The origins of the Sakyas is unclear, and they were "possibly" an Aryanized non-Aryan tribe, or of "mixed origin" (
saṃkīrṇa-yonayaḥ), consisting primarily an indigenous lineage with a possible minority of Aryan ancestry.
Shakya legends link their ancestry to Okkāka (Ikshvāku), whose name is of Munda origin, and E. J. Thomas argued they were mainly of Kol people or Munda people origin. The Shakyas were closely related to their eastern neighbours, the Koliya tribe, with whom they intermarried.
Alternative Central-Asian origin hypothesis
Michael Witzel and Christopher I. Beckwith have equated the Shakyas with Central Asian nomads who were called
Scythians by the Greeks,
Saka by the Achaemenid Persians, and by the Indo-Aryans. These scholars have suggested that the people of the Buddha were Saka soldiers who arrived in South Asia in the army of Darius the Great during the Achaemenid conquest of the Indus Valley, and saw in Scytho-Saka nomadism the origin of the wandering asceticism of the Buddha.
Scholars criticize the Scythian hypothesis due to a lack of evidence, with Bryan Levman maintaining that the Shakyas were native to the north-east Ganges plain and unrelated to the Iranic Sakas.[: "The evidence for this final wave is however, very slim and there is no evidence for it in the Vedic texts; for their western origin, Witzel relies on a reference in Pāṇini (4.2.131, madravṛjyoḥ) to the Vṛjjis in dual relation with the Madras who are from the northwest, and to the Mallas in the Jaiminīya Brāhamaṇa (§198) as arising from the dust of Rajasthan. Neither the Sakyas nor any of the other eastern tribes are mentioned, and of course there is no proof that any of these are Indo-Aryan groups. I view the Sakyas and the later Śakas as two separate groups, the former being aboriginal."] Johannes Bronkhorst also criticises the Scythian hypothesis, stating that Beckwith's argument rests on the term " Sākamuni" which does not appear in any Mauryan-era inscriptions or the Pali Canon.
Statehood
By the sixth century BCE, the Shakyas, the
, Moriyas, and Mallakas lived between the territories of the
Kosala to the west and the Licchavikas and
Videha to the east, thus separating the
Vajjika League from the Kosala kingdom. By that time, the Shakya republic had become a vassal state of the larger
Kosala.
During the fifth century itself, one of the members of the ruling aristocratic oligarchy of the Shakyas was Suddhodana. Suddhodana was married to the princess Māyā, who was the daughter of a Koliya noble, and the son of Suddhodana and Māyā was Gautama Buddha, the historical Buddha and founder of Buddhism.
During the life of the Buddha, an armed feud opposed the Shakyas and the Koliyas concerning the waters of the river Rohiṇī, which formed the boundary between the two states and whose water was needed by both of them to irrigate their crops. The intervention of the Buddha finally put an end to these hostilities.
After the death of the Buddha, the Shakyas claimed a share of his relics from the Mallakas of Kusinārā on the grounds that he had been a Shakya.
Conquest by Kosala
Shortly after the Buddha's death, the
Kosala king
Virudhaka, who had overthrown his father
Pasenadi, invaded the Shakya and Koliya republics, seeking to conquer their territories because they had once been part of
Kosala. Viḍūḍabha finally triumphed over the Shakyas and Koliyas and annexed their state after a long war with massive loss of lives on both sides. Details of this war were exaggerated by later Buddhist accounts, which claimed that Viḍūḍabha exterminated the Shakyas in retaliation for having given in marriage to his father the slave girl who became Viḍūḍabha's mother. In actuality, Viḍūḍabha's invasion of Shakya might instead have had similar motivations to the conquest of the
Vajjika League by Viḍūḍabha's relative, the Māgadhī king
Ajatashatru, who, because he was the son of a Vajjika princess, was therefore interested in the territory of his mother's homeland. The result of the Kauśalya invasion was that the Shakyas and Koliyas merely lost political importance after being annexed into Viḍūḍabha's kingdom. The Shakyas nevertheless soon disappeared as an ethnic group after their annexation, having become absorbed into the population of Kosala, with only a few displaced families maintaining the Shakya identity later. The Koliyas likewise disappeared as a polity and as a tribe soon after their annexation.
The massive life losses incurred by Kosala during its conquest of Shakya and Koliya weakened it significantly enough that it was itself soon annexed by its eastern neighbour, the kingdom of Magadha, and its king Viḍūḍabha was defeated and killed by the Māgadhī king Ajātasattu.
Legacy
In Buddhism
The Buddha was given the epithet of the "Sage of the Shakyas", in Pali and in Sanskrit, by his followers.
The functioning of the proceedings in the Trāyastriṃśa heaven ruled by Sakka, lord of the devas in Buddhist cosmology, are modelled on those of the Shakya santhāgāra or general assembly hall.
Descent claims
Tharu people of Tarai region of India and Nepal claim descent from Sakya.
Significant population of
Newar people of
Kathmandu valley in Nepal use the surname Shakya and also claim to be the descendants of the Shakya clan with titles such as Śākyavamsa (of the Shakya lineage) having been used in the past.
According to Hmannan Yazawin, first published in 1823, the legendary king Abhiyaza, who founded the Tagaung Kingdom and the Burmese monarchy belonged to the same Shakya clan of the Buddha.
Culture and society
Ethnicity
The Shakyas lived in what scholars presently call the
Greater Magadha cultural area, which was located in the eastern Gangetic plain to the east of the confluence of the Gaṅgā and Yamunā rivers. Like the other eastern groups of the Greater Magadha region, the Shakyas were ("of mixed origin"), and therefore did not subscribe to the social organisation consisting of
Brahmin,
Kshatriya,
Vaishya, and
Shudra. While non-Indo-Aryan indigenous clans were given the status of s, that is of slaves or servants, indigenous clans who collaborated with the Indo-Aryan clans were the status of s. The Buddhist suttas are ambiguous on the status of the Buddha, sometimes calling him a kshatriya, but mostly ignoring the varna system. Additionally, the populations of Greater Magadha did not subscribe to the supremacy of the s of the peoples of , and s were regarded as higher in the societies of Greater Magadha.
Vedic literature therefore considered the populations of Greater Magadha as existing outside of the limits of , with the Manusmriti grouping the Videha, Māgadhīs, Licchavikas, and Mallakas, who were the neighbours of the Shakyas,
This negative view of the peoples of the Greater Magadha region by the Vedic peoples extended to the Shakyas, as recorded in the , according to which the s described the Shakyas as "fierce, rough-spoken, touchy and violent", and accused them of not honouring, respecting, esteeming, revering or paying homage to the s owing to their "menial origin".
Language
The Shakyans were at least bilingual, under the linguistic influence of
Munda languages, as attested by many of their villages having Mundari names, and the name of the founder of their clan, which has been recorded in the Sanskrit form and the Pali form , being of
Munda peoples.
Social organisation
Class system
The society of the Shakyas and Koliyas was a stratified one which did not subscribe to the social organisation consisting of
Brahmin,
Kshatriya,
Vaishya, and
Shudra, but instead consisted of an aristocratic class of s and a slave or servant class of s, themselves comprising at least an aristocracy, as well as land-owners, attendants, labourers, and serfs.
Landholders held the title of s, literally meaning "enjoyers (of the right to own land)", and used in the sense of "headmen".
The lower classes of Shakya society consisted of servants, in Pāli called s () and s (), who performed the labour in the farms.
Administrative structure
The Sakyas were organised into a (an
Aristocracy Oligarchy republic) similarly to the Licchavikas.
The assembly
The heads of the Sakya
kshatriya clans of the formed an Assembly, and they held the title of s. The position of was hereditary, and after a 's death was passed to his eldest son, who while he was living held the title of ("Viceroy").
The political system of the Sakyas was identical to that of the Koliyas, and like the Koliyas and the other s, the Assembly met in a santhāgāra, the main of which was located at Kapilavatthu, although at least one other Sakya santhāgāra also existed at Cātuma. The judicial and legislative functions of the Assembly of the Sakyas were not distinctly separated, and it met to discuss important issues concerning public affairs, such as war, peace, and alliances. The Sakya Assembly deliberated on important issues, and it had a simple voting system through either raising hands or the use of wooden chips.
The council
Similarly to the other s, the Sakya Assembly met rarely and it instead had an inner and smaller Council which met more often to administer the republic in the name of the Assembly. The members of the council, titled s, formed a college which was directly in charge of public affairs of the republic.
The (Consul)
The head of the Sakya republic was an elected chief, which was a position of first among equals similar to
Ancient Rome Roman consul and
Ancient Greece , and whose incumbent had the title of . The was in charge of administering the republic with the help of the council.
Functioning of the assembly
When sessions of the Assembly were held, the s gathered in the santhāgāra; while four s were posted in the four corners or sides of the hall so as to clearly and easily hear the speeches made by the s; and the consul took his appointed seat and put forward the matters to be discussed once the Assembly was ready.
During the session, the members of the Assembly expressed their views, which the four s would record. The Assembly was then adjourned, after which the recorders compared their notes, and all the s came back and waited for the recorders' decision.
Lifestyle
Aristocratic marriage customs
Another reflection of non-Indo-Aryan cultural practices of the Shakyas was the practice of sibling marriages among their ruling clans, which was forbidden among peoples, and was a practice of social demarcation and of maintaining power within a smaller sub-group of the Shakya clan, and was therefore not permitted among the lower classes of the Shakya.
Religion
Since they lived in the
Greater Magadha cultural area, the Shakyas followed non-Vedic religious customs which drastically differed from the
Brahmanism tradition, and even by the time of the Buddha, Brahmanism and the s had not acquired religious or cultural preponderance in the Greater Magadha area to which Shakya belonged.
It was in this non-Vedic cultural environment that movements existed, with one of them, Buddhism, having been founded by the Shakya Siddhartha Gautama, the historical Gautama Buddha.
Sun worship
The Shakyas worshipped the
Surya, whom they considered their ancestor, hence why the Shakya clan claimed to be of the ( in Sanskrit)
gotra, and of the
Solar dynasty ("Solar dynasty").
Origin myth
The Shakya clan claimed descent from the Sun-god via his descendant, named (in
Pali) and (in
Sanskrit), and whose eight twin sons and daughters who were married to each other had founded the capital city of the Shakyas and were the tribe's ancestors. This was an origin myth of the ruling status of the families of the Shakya clan, who had the right to be represented in the , were often related to each other, and possessed adjacent areas of land, thus establishing kinship, which itself helped form rights of landownership, and, therefore, of political authority.
This myth was also a foundation myth of the city which, as the residence of the ruling families of the clan, the city, which was the centre of political and economic activity, was associated with that clan's Janapada (territory), and was equated with the whole itself.
The myth of the Shakyas' ancestors being four pairs of married twin siblings was a myth which traced the origins of the ruling Shakya families to a common ancestor, and was also a myth of an early human utopia where humans were born as couples.
Tree worship
The important role of the
Shorea robusta in the life of the Buddha according to the Buddhist texts, as well as his representation as a
Ficus religiosa and his Enlightenment occurring under one such tree, suggest that the Shakyas practised tree worship, a custom likely derived from Munda religious customs of worshipping sacred groves, and the important role in their traditions of the Sāl tree, whose flowering marks the beginning of their New Year and Flower Feast festivals: the
Santal people tribe worship the Sāl tree and gather to make communal decisions under Sāl trees.
The importance of the tree spirits called Yaksha in Pali (s and s in Sanskrit) in early Buddhist texts is an attestation of the worship of these beings done at cetiya. The worship of s and s, which was of pre-Indo-Aryan autochthonous origin, was prevalent in the Greater Magadha region.
Serpent worship
The king
Mucalinda, who in Buddhist mythology protected the Buddha during a storm under a mucalinda tree, was a both snake- and a tree-deity, thus alluding to the practice of serpent worship among the Shakyas, which originated from among the pre-Indo-Aryan Tibeto-Burman populations of northern South Asia.
Funerary customs
The cremation rituals of the Shakyas which were performed for the funeral of the Buddha as described by Buddhist texts involved wrapping his body in 500 layers of cloth, placing it in an iron vat full of oil as a mark of honour, and then covering it with another iron pot before being cremated. These rites originated from the pre-Indo-Aryan autochthonous populations of the eastern Gangetic plains, as were the practices such as honouring the Buddha's body with singing, dancing, and music, as well as placing his bones in a golden urn, the veneration of these remains and their burial in a round
stupa which possessed a central mast, flags, pennants, and parasols at a public crossroads, which were rituals that were performed by the pre-Indo-Aryan populations for their greater rulers.
See also
-
Shakya (surname)
-
Family tree of Sinhalese monarchs
Notes
Sources
