Voting is the process of making collective decisions by means of submitting and then adding up individual choices. The choice voted upon is often a candidate for office, but the object of a vote can be anything, for example what kind of food to buy or whether a defendant is innocent or guilty. Voting can be formal, using ballots and specific rules, or informal using raised hands, shouts, or movement to indicate preference.
Choosing one or more or representatives by casting an oral vote or a ballot, a document that formally expresses voter's preference or preferences as to whom should be elected or strategic voting. Voting can also be used to decide on policy usually by a majority but sometimes a super-majority is required. In and representative democracies, a portion of the population votes to choose representative government members.
, the procedure for converting votes cast into winners, vary depending on both the country and the political office. In many countries organizations work to reform the election system, usually to make it fairer and ensure that as many votes as possible are used to elect the winners.
In organizations and non-government settings, voting may occur in different ways: formally via a paper vote to elect others for example within a workplace, to elect members of political associations, or to choose roles for others; or informally with a spoken agreement or a raised hand or other gesture. In larger organizations, like Country, voting is generally confined to periodic .
All modern liberal democracies use voting by secret ballot to prevent individuals from becoming influenced by other people and to protect their political privacy. The objective of secret ballots is to try to achieve the most authentic outcome, without any risk of pressure, threat, or services linked to one's vote; this way, a person is able to express their actual preferences.
Voting often takes place at a polling station but voting can also be done remotely by mail or using internet voting (such as in Estonia). Voting is voluntary in some countries, like the UK, but it may be required by law in others, such as Australia.
Various types of ballots
Different
use different
ballot designs. Some ballots allow only one choice to be selected (single X voting); some ballots allow multiple choices to be selected (multiple X voting); some allow ranking of multiple options (
Ranked ballots, either to be used as back-up preferences or used in conjunction with the first preference.
Different voting systems allow each voter to cast a different number of votes - only one (single voting as in First-past-the-post voting, Single non-transferable voting and Single transferable voting); as many as are being elected in a multiple-member district (multiple voting as used in Plurality block voting); more than one but fewer than are being elected in a multiple-member district (Limited voting). Most allow a voter to put just one vote on each candidate, but cumulative voting allows a voter's votes to be piled on to one candidate.
With ranked voting, as used in instant-runoff voting system in some elections in Australia and the United States, and single transferable voting used in Ireland, Malta and other places, voters rank candidates in order of preference (1,2,3,4 etc.). At first, each vote is distributed to the candidate marked as the first preference. Later the vote may be transferred to a different candidate marked as a back-up preference. The vote is used for just one candidate at any one time (or split fractionally among multiple candidates but its fractions never adding up to more than one).
In the Quota Borda System (QBS),
In a voting system that uses multiple votes (Plurality block voting), the voter can vote for any subset of the running candidates. So, a voter might vote for Alice, Bob, and Charlie, rejecting Daniel and Emily. Approval voting uses such multiple votes.
In a voting system that uses a ranked vote, the voter ranks the candidates in order of preference. For example, they might mark a preference for Bob in the first place, then Emily, then Alice, then Daniel, and finally Charlie. Ranked voting systems, such as those used in Australia and Ireland, use a ranked vote.
In a voting system that uses a scored vote (or range vote), the voter gives each alternative a number between one and ten (the upper and lower bounds may vary). See cardinal voting systems.
Some multiple-winner systems such as the Single Non-Transferable Vote, SNTV, used in Afghanistan and Vanuatu give a single vote or one vote per elector even though multiple members are being elected in the district.
STV uses single ranked votes.
block voting are often used for at-large positions such as members of city councils.
Under cumulative voting, a voter casts multiple votes and can cast more than one vote for the same candidate.
The Condorcet rule is used (sometimes) in decision-making. The voters or elected representatives cast their preferences on one, some, or all options, 1,2,3,4... as in PR-STV or QBS.
Women's suffrage
Referendums
People can sometimes vote in
and initiatives. Since the end of the eighteenth century, more than five hundred national referendums (including initiatives) were held in the world. More than three hundred were held in Switzerland.
[ Bruno S. Frey et Claudia Frey Marti, Le bonheur. L'approche économique, Presses Polytechniques et Universitaires romandes, 2013 ().] Australia has also held dozens of referendums.
Most referendums are binary, a yes or no quetiton. The first multi-option referendum was held in New Zealand in 1894. Most multi-option referendums are conducted under a two-round system. New Zealand had a five-option referendum in 1992, while Guam had a six-option plebiscite in 1982, which also offered a blank option, for voters who wanted to (campaign and) vote for a seventh option.
Proxy voting
Proxy voting is a form of voting in which a registered citizen who can legally vote passes on his or her vote to a different voter or electorate who will vote in his stead. This is sometimes confused with
liquid democracy.
Solidarity voting
Solidarity voting refers to electoral behavior where voters cast their ballots based on a willingness to support others, share risks, or advance the collective interests of a group, rather than acting solely on individual self-interest or immediate personal gain.
In the context of the
European Union, solidarity voting has emerged as a response to multiple crises, such as the Eurozone crisis and the refugee crisis. Research on the 2019 European Parliament elections indicates that voters' preferences for "European solidarity," defined as the willingness to share economic risks and redistribute resources across member states and citizens, significantly influenced their voting behavior.
In the
United States, solidarity voting plays a role in the political behavior of racially minoritized groups. Research suggests that emphasizing experiences of "shared discrimination" can foster a sense of solidarity among Black, Latino, and Asian Americans, encouraging them to identify with a superordinate "People of Color" (PoC) identity.
While shared discrimination appeals may not always directly shift voting intentions, they can do so indirectly by increasing feelings of solidarity. Solidarity also functions as a normative pressure in workplace union certification elections. Research indicates that "workgroup solidarity," measured by the aggregate union attitudes of coworkers, is a significant predictor of an individual's vote, independent of their own personal attitudes toward unions.
This form of solidarity voting is driven by subjective norms and the desire to "stand well" with coworkers, where individuals are motivated to comply with the behavioral expectations of their peer group.
Anti-voting
In South Africa, poor citizens have conducted anti-voting campaigns. They made the structural argument that no political party truly represented them. This resulted in the "No Land! No House! No Vote!" campaign, which was prominent each time the country held elections.
The campaign was supported by three of South Africa's largest social movements: the Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign, Abahlali baseMjondolo, and the Landless Peoples Movement.
Other social movements in other parts of the world also have had similar campaigns or non-voting preferences. These include the Zapatista Army of National Liberation and various anarchist-oriented movements.
Some of those who are required to vote merely spoil their vote. Others make a blank vote, carrying out the act of voting, which may be compulsory, without selecting any candidate or option, often as an act of protest. In some jurisdictions, there is an official none of the above option and it is counted as a valid vote. Usually, blank and null votes are counted (together or separately) but are not considered valid.
Voting and information
Modern political science has questioned whether average citizens have sufficient political knowledge to cast meaningful votes. A series of studies coming out of the University of Michigan in the 1950s and 1960s argued that many voters lack a basic understanding of current issues, the liberal–conservative
Ideology dimension, and the relative ideological dilemma that are important to understand when making political decisions.
Studies from other institutions have suggested that the physical appearance of candidates is a criterion upon which voters base their decision.
Voting advice applications can increase political knowledge enabling to cast informed votes.
Religious views
Christadelphians, Jehovah's Witnesses,
Amish,
Rastafarians and some other religious groups, have a policy of not participating in politics and this extends to voting.
Some religious groups, including the Assemblies of Yahweh, discourage or prohibit voting in civil elections on theological grounds. In the Sacred Name Broadcaster,
Elder Jacob O. Meyer argues that Sovereign
Jesus did not participate in partisan politics and taught that His kingdom “is not of this world” (John 18:36).
The article frames believers as “ambassadors” of Yahweh’s coming Kingdom (2 Corinthians 5:20; cf. Ephesians 6:20) whose primary “citizenship is in heaven” (Philippians 3:20), and therefore urges allegiance to Yahweh’s government rather than alignment with competing political parties.
It also distinguishes this stance from rejecting civil order altogether, stating that believers should obey civil laws and pay taxes insofar as such laws do not conflict with Yahweh’s commandments (cf. Romans 13:1–7), while awaiting the establishment of Yahweh’s Kingdom under the Messiah.
Rabbis from all Jewish denominations encourage voting and some even consider it a religious obligation.
The
Catholic Church teaches that it is morally obligatory to vote.
Meetings and gatherings
Whenever several people who do not all agree need to make some decision, voting and a form of election is a common way of reaching a decision peacefully. The right to vote is usually restricted to certain people. Members of a society or club, or shareholders of a company, but not outsiders, may elect its officers, or adopt or change its rules, in a similar way to the election of people to official positions. A panel of judges, either formal judicial authorities or judges of the competition, may decide by voting. A group of friends or members of a family may decide which film to see by voting. The method of voting can range from formal submission of written votes, through show of hands,
voice voting or audience response systems, to informal noting which outcome seems to be preferred by more people.
In deliberative assemblies
Some votes are carried out in person if all the people eligible to vote are present. This could be by a show of hands or
keypad polling.
Deliberative assemblies—bodies that use parliamentary procedure to arrive at Decision-making—use several methods when voting on motions (formal proposals by a member or members of a deliberative assembly). The regular methods of voting in such bodies are a voice vote, a rising vote, and a show of hands. Additional forms of voting include a recorded vote and balloting. The assembly can decide on the voting method by adopting a motion on it.
Voting methods
Paper-based methods
The most common voting method uses paper
on which voters either place an X or mark their preferences as in
ranked votes. This may involve marking their support for a candidate or party whose identification is printed on the ballot, or a write-in where they write out the name of their preferred candidate (if it is not listed).
An alternative method that is still paper-based known as ballot letters is used in Israel, where polling booths contain a tray with ballots for each party running in the elections; the ballots are marked with the letter(s) assigned to that party. Voters are given an envelope into which they put the ballot of the party they wish to vote for, before placing the envelope in the ballot box. The same system is also implemented in Latvia. The system is used commonly in or Partisan primary, where voters must choose a single party whose candidates they are allowed to choose between.
In 19th century western Canada the "Oliver ballot" was used, where the voter was given a blank ballot and a range of colored pencils. He put a mark on the ballot with the pencil of the color of his preferred candidate.[A Report on Alberta Elections, 1905-1982]
Machine voting
Machine voting uses
, which may be manual (e.g. lever machines) or electronic.
Online voting
Some countries allow people to vote online. Estonia was one of the first countries to use online voting: it was first used in their 2005 local elections.
Postal voting
Many countries allow
postal voting, where voters are sent a ballot and return it by post.
Open ballot
In contrast to a
secret ballot, an open ballot takes place in public and is commonly done by a show of hands. An example is the
Landsgemeinde system in Switzerland, which is still in use in the
Swiss canton of Appenzell Innerrhoden, Glarus,
Grisons, and Schwyz.
Other methods
In
The Gambia, voting is carried out using marbles. The method was introduced in 1965 to deal with
illiteracy.
Polling stations contain metal drums painted in party colours and emblems with candidates' photos attached to them.
Voters are given a marble to place in the drum of their chosen candidate; when dropped into the drum, a bell sounds to register the vote. To avoid confusion, bicycles are banned near polling booths on election day.
If the marble is left on top of the drum rather than placed in it, the vote is deemed invalid.
A similar system used in social clubs sees voters given a white ball to indicate support and a black ball to indicate opposition. Secretly, each voter places the ball of choice into a receptacle, and then the resulting distribution of balls is counted at the end of the voting period, often with one black ball being enough to decide against the prospective member Thus was coined the term blackballing.
See also
External links
