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Theocracy or ethiocracy is a form of autocracy (2025). 9781349377633, Palgrave Macmillan US. ISBN 9781349377633 or oligarchy in which one or more deity are recognized as supreme ruling authorities, giving divine guidance to human intermediaries, with executive and legislative power, who manage the government's daily affairs.Webster's Encyclopedic Unabridged Dictionary of the English Language (1989 edition).
The term was initially coined by Flavius Josephus in the first century AD to describe the characteristic government of the . Josephus argued that while mankind had developed many forms of rule, most could be subsumed under the following three types: monarchy, oligarchy, and democracy. However, according to Josephus, the government of the Jews was unique. Josephus offered the term theocracy to describe this polity in which a god was sovereign and the god's word was law.
Josephus' definition was widely accepted until the Enlightenment era, when the term took on negative and was barely salvaged by Hegel's commentary. The first recorded English use was in 1622, with the meaning "sacerdotal government under divine inspiration" (as in ancient Israel and Judah); the meaning "priestly or religious body wielding political and civil power" was first recorded in 1825.
In an hierocracy, a specific type of theocracy, the governing body is composed of a hierarchical structure of religious officials or clergy.
In an ecclesiocracy, the religious leaders assume a leading role in the state, but do not claim that they are instruments of divine revelation.
In an church-state, a state where religious and political power are intertwined, often with the church having significant influence over the government
A related phenomenon is a secular government co-existing with a state religion or delegating some aspects of civil law to religious communities. For example, in Israel (which is sometimes referred to as a theocracy), marriage is governed by officially recognized religious bodies who each provide marriage services for their respected adherents, yet no form of civil marriage (free of religion) exists, nor marriage by non-recognized minority religions.
According to Merriam-Webster's Dictionary, there are two meanings for the word theocracy: (1) government of a state by immediate divine guidance or by officials who are regarded as divinely guided; and (2) a state governed by a theocracy.
Voting is limited to cardinals under 80 years of age. A Secretary for Relations with States, directly responsible for international relations, is appointed by the pope. The Vatican legal system is rooted in canon law. The Bishop of Rome, as the Supreme Pontiff, "has the fullness of legislative, executive and judicial powers." Fundamental Law of Vatican City State, Art. 1 §1 Although the laws of Vatican City come from the secular laws of Italy, under article 3 of the Law of the Sources of the Law, a provision is made for the application of the "laws promulgated by the Kingdom of Italy".
Mount Athos is specifically exempt from the free movement of people and goods required by Greece's membership of the European Union,Joint Declaration No. 5 attached to the Final Act of the non-accession treaty. and entrance is allowed only with express permission from the monks. The number of daily visitors to Mount Athos is restricted, with all visitors required to obtain an entrance permit. Only men are permitted to visit, and Eastern Orthodox Christians take precedence in the issuing of permits. Residents of Mount Athos must be men aged 18 and over who are members of the Eastern Orthodox Church and also either monks or workers.
Athos is governed jointly by a community consisting of members of the 20 monasteries and a Civil Administrator, appointed by the Greek Ministry of Foreign Affairs. The monastic community is led by the Protos.
The term "Islamic republic" has come to mean several different things, at times contradictory. To some Muslim religious leaders in the Middle East and Africa who advocate it, an Islamic republic is a Sovereign state under a particular form of government. They see it as a compromise between a purely Islamic caliphate and secular nationalism and republicanism. In their conception of the Islamic republic, the penal code of the state is required to be compatible with some or all laws of Sharia, and the state does not necessarily have to be a monarchy, as many Middle Eastern states presently are.
Spreading from Kandahar, the Taliban eventually captured Kabul in 1996. By the end of 2000, the Taliban controlled 90% of the country, aside from the opposition (Northern Alliance) strongholds which were primarily found in the northeast corner of Badakhshan Province. Areas under the Taliban's direct control were mainly Afghanistan's major cities and highways. Tribal khans and warlords had de facto direct control over various small towns, villages, and rural areas.Griffiths 226. The Taliban sought to establish law and order and to impose a strict interpretation of Islamic Sharia law, along with the religious edicts of Mullah Mullah Omar, upon the entire country of Afghanistan.
During the five-year history of the Emirate, the Taliban regime interpreted the Sharia in accordance with the Hanafi Fiqh and the religious edicts of Mullah Omar. The Taliban forbade pork and alcohol, many types of consumer technology such as music, television, and film, as well as most forms of art such as paintings or photography, male and female participation in sport, including football and chess; Recreation such as Kite and keeping pigeons or other pets were also forbidden, and the birds were killed according to the Taliban's ruling. were closed and repurposed as . Celebration of the Western and Iranian New Year was forbidden. Taking photographs and displaying pictures or portraits was forbidden, as it was considered by the Taliban as a form of idolatry. Women were banned from working, girls were forbidden to attend schools or universities, were requested to observe purdah and to be accompanied outside their households by male relatives; those who violated these restrictions were punished. Men were forbidden to shave their beards and required to let them grow and keep them long according to the Taliban's liking, and to wear turbans outside their households. were systematically executed. Salah was made compulsory and those who did not respect the religious obligation after the Adhan were arrested. Gambling was banned. Thieves were punished by amputating their hands or feet. In 2000, the Taliban leader Mullah Omar officially banned opium cultivation and drug trafficking in Afghanistan; the Taliban succeeded in nearly eradicating opium production (99%) by 2001. Under the Taliban governance of Afghanistan, both drug users and dealers were severely prosecuted.
Cabinet ministers and deputies were mullahs with a "madrasah education." Several of them, such as the Minister of Health and Governor of the State bank, were primarily military commanders who were ready to leave their administrative posts to fight when needed. Military reverses that trapped them behind lines or led to their deaths increased the chaos in the national administration. At the national level, "all senior Tajiks, Uzbeks and Hazaras bureaucrats" were replaced "with Pashtuns, whether qualified or not." Consequently, the ministries "by and large ceased to function.".
Journalist Ahmed Rashid described the Taliban government as "a secret society run by ... mysterious, secretive, and dictatorial." They did not hold elections, as their spokesman explained:
They modeled their decision-making process on the Pashtun tribal council ( jirga), together with what they believed to be the early Islamic model. Discussion was followed by a building of a consensus by the "believers". Before capturing Kabul, there was talk of stepping aside once a government of "good Muslims" took power, and law and order were restored.
As the Taliban's power grew, decisions were made by Mullah Omar without consulting the jirga and without consulting other parts of the country. One such instance is the rejection of Loya Jirga decision about expulsion of Osama bin Laden. Mullah Omar visited the capital, Kabul, only twice while in power. Instead of an election, their leader's legitimacy came from an oath of allegiance ("Bay'ah"), in imitation of Muhammad and the Rashidun . On 4 April 1996, Mullah Omar had "the Cloak of Muhammad" taken from its shrine, Kirka Sharif, for the first time in 60 years. Wrapping himself in the relic, he appeared on the roof of a building in the center of Kandahar while hundreds of Pashtun below shouted "Amir al-Mu'minin!" (Commander of the Faithful), in a pledge of support. Taliban spokesman Mullah Wakil explained:
The Taliban were reluctant to share power, and since their ranks were overwhelmingly Pashtun they ruled as overlords over the 60% of Afghans from other ethnic groups. In local government, such as the Kabul city council or Herat, Taliban loyalists, not locals, dominated, even when the Pashto-speaking Taliban could not communicate with roughly half of the population who spoke Dari or other non-Pashtun tongues. Critics complained that this "lack of local representation in urban administration made the Taliban appear as an occupying force."
In addition, Iran has a religious ruler and many religious officials in powerful governmental positions. The head of state, or "Supreme Leader", is a faqih (scholar of Islamic law)article 109 of the constitution states that among the "essential qualifications and conditions for the Leader" are "scholarship, as required for performing the functions of mufti in different fields of fiqh" Chapter 8 – The Leader or Leadership Council Constitution of Iran and has more power than the president of Iran. Iran's current Supreme Leader is Ali Khamenei, a role he has held since 1989. The Leader appoints the heads of many powerful governmental positions: the commanders of the armed forces, the director of the national radio and television network, the heads of powerful Bonyad, the chief justice of Iran, the attorney general (indirectly through the chief justice), special tribunals, and members of the supreme national security council who are dealing with defense and foreign affairs. He also co-appoints the 12 jurists of the Guardian Council."Who's in Charge?" by Ervand Abrahamian London Review of Books, 6 November 2008
The Leader is elected by the Assembly of ExpertsConstitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran, Articles 107–112 . which is made up of Ijtihad, who are Islamic scholars competent in interpreting Sharia. The Guardian Council, has the power to reject bills passed by the Parliament. It can also approve or reject candidates who want to run for the Presidency, Parliament, and the Assembly of Experts. The council supervises elections, and can allow or ban investigations into elections. Six of the twelve council members are faqih and have the power to approve or reject all bills passed by the Parliament, whether the faqih believes that the bill is in accordance with Islamic laws and customs ( Sharia) or not. The other six members are lawyers appointed by the chief justice, who is a cleric and appointed by the Leader. Constitution of Iran , Article 157: In order to fulfill the responsibilities of the judiciary power in all the matters concerning judiciary, administrative and executive areas, the Leader shall appoint a just Mujtahid well versed in judiciary affairs and possessing prudence, and administrative abilities
On 14 March 2011, at the 14th Dalai Lama's suggestion, the parliament of the Central Tibetan Administration began considering a proposal to remove the Dalai Lama's role as head of state in favor of an elected leader.
The first directly elected Kalon Tripa was Samdhong Rinpoche, who was elected on 20 August 2001.Donovan Roebert, Samdhong Rinpoche: Uncompromising Truth for a Compromised World (World Wisdom, 2006) (On August 20, 2001, Venerable Professor Samdhong Rinpoche was elected Kalon Tripa (Prime Minister) of the Tibetan Government in Exile, receiving 84.5% of the popular exile vote.)
Before 2011, the Kalon Tripa position was subordinate to the 14th Dalai Lama The Charter of Tibetans in-Exile , Article 20 of the Constitution of Tibet, retrieved 2010-03-19. who presided over the government in exile from its founding. The Charter of Tibetans in-Exile , Articles 19, 30, & 31 of the Constitution of Tibet, retrieved 2010-03-19. In August of that year, Lobsang Sangay received 55 percent of 49,189 votes, defeating his nearest rival Tethong Tenzin Namgyal by 8,646 votes, becoming the second popularly elected Kalön Tripa. The Dalai Lama announced that his political authority would be transferred to Sangay.Dean Nelson Lobsang Sangay: profile , The Telegraph, 08 Aug 2011
The Shang dynasty ( 1600 BCE to 1045 BCE) essentially functioned as a theocracy, declaring the ruling family the sons of heaven and calling the chief sky god Shangdi after a word for their deceased ancestors. After their overthrow by the Zhou dynasty, the royal clan of Shang were not eliminated but instead moved to a ceremonial capital where they were charged to continue the performance of their rituals.
The titles combined by Shi Huangdi to form his new title of Chinese emperor were originally applied to Three Sovereigns who ordered the heavens and earth and to culture heroes credited with the invention of Five Grains, clothing, music, astrology, etc. Even after the fall of Qin dynasty in 206 BCE, an emperor's words were considered sacred edicts (聖旨) and his written proclamations "directives from above" (上諭).
As a result, some translate the title huangdi (usually rendered "emperor") as thearch. The term properly refers to the head of a thearchy (a kingdom of gods), but the more specific "theocrat" carries associations of a strong priesthood that would be generally inaccurate in describing imperial China. Others reserve the use of the word "thearch" to describe the legendary figures of Chinese prehistory while continuing to use "emperor" to describe historical rulers.Nadeau, Randall L. The Wiley-Blackwell Companion to Chinese Religions, pp. 54 ff. John Wiley & Sons (Chichester), 2012. Accessed 22 December 2013.
The Heavenly Kingdom of Great Peace (1851 to 1864) in Qing China was a heterodox Christian theocracy led by Hong Xiuquan, who portrayed himself as the younger brother of Jesus Christ. His theocratic state fought one of the most destructive wars in history, the Taiping Rebellion, against the Qing dynasty for fifteen years before being crushed following the 1864 fall of the rebel capital Nanjing.
Jennifer Fretland VanVoorst argues that "the Byzantine Empire became a theocracy in the sense that Christian values and ideals were the foundation of the empire's political ideals and heavily entwined with its political goals". Steven Runciman writes in his book The Byzantine Theocracy (2004):
In nearby Zürich, Switzerland, Protestant reformer Huldrych Zwingli (1484–1531) built a political system that many scholars have called a theocracy, while others have denied it.
Joseph Smith, mayor of Nauvoo, Illinois and founder of the Latter Day Saint movement, ran as an independent for U.S. president in 1844. He proposed the redemption of slaves by selling public lands, reducing the size and salary of Congress, the closure of prisons, the annexation of Texas, Oregon, and parts of Canada, the securing of international rights on the high seas, free trade, and the re-establishment of a national bank. Smith's top aide, Brigham Young, campaigned for Smith, saying, "He it is that God of Heaven designs to save this nation from destruction and preserve the Constitution.", quote on p 203 The campaign ended when Smith was killed by a mob while in the Carthage, Illinois, jail on June 27, 1844.Carthage Jail
After severe persecution, the Mormons left the United States and resettled in a remote part of what is now Utah, (then part of Mexico). However the United States took control in 1848 and would not accept polygamy. The Mormon State of Deseret was short-lived. Deseret utah.gov Its original borders stretched from western Colorado to the southern California coast. When the Mormons arrived in the valley of the Great Salt Lake in 1847, the Great Basin was still a part of Mexico and had no secular government. As a result, Brigham Young administered the region both spiritually and temporally through the highly organized and centralized Melchizedek Priesthood. This original organization, based upon Joseph Smith's concept of theodemocracy, instituted a governmental system combining biblical theocracy with mid-19th-century American political ideals.John G. Turner, Brigham Young: Pioneer Prophet (2014)
In 1849 the Saints organized a secular government in Utah, although many ecclesiastical leaders maintained their positions of secular power. The Mormons also petitioned Congress to have Deseret admitted into the Union as a state. However, the Compromise of 1850 established Utah Territory, and U.S. President Millard Fillmore appointed Brigham Young as governor (in office 1851 to 1858)). In this situation, Young still stood as head of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) as well as of Utah's secular government.
After the abortive Utah War of 1857–1858, the replacement of Young by an outside Federal Territorial Governor, intense federal Anti-Mormonism, the eventual resolution of controversies regarding plural marriage, and accession by Utah to statehood, the apparent temporal aspects of LDS theodemocracy receded markedly.Luke Perry and Christopher Cronin, Mormons in American Politics: From Persecution to Power (ABC-CLIO, 2012)
Under the Seleucids (312 to 63 BCE), Zoroastrianism became autonomous. During the Sassanid period (224 to 651 CE), the Zoroastrian calendar was reformed, image-use in worship was banned, Fire Temples were increasingly built, and intolerance towards other faiths prevailed.
Caliphates
The Sunni Islam branch of Islam stipulates that, as a head of state, a Caliph should be selected or elected by Muslims or by their representatives. Followers of Shia Islam, however, believe a Caliph should be an Imam chosen by God from the Ahl al-Bayt (the "Family of the House", Muhammad's direct descendants). In both cases, caliphs theoretically combine religious and secular powers.
Timurid and Mughal Empires
The Emperors of the Timurid Empire and Mughal dynasty were regarded as intermediaries of their subordinates and God by virtue of the blessings of the Hazrat Ishaans, who were the spiritual guides of the Timurid and Mughal Emperors. The Emperors believed the Hazrat Ishaans to be the rightful spiritual successors of Muhammad and by this virtue to be the intermediaries between God and man.
Byzantine Empire
The Byzantine Empire ( 324–1453) operated under Symphonia, meaning that the emperor was both the head of civil society and the ultimate authority over the ecclesiastical authorities, the patriarchates. The emperor, regarded as God's representative on earth, ruled as an absolute Autocracy.
Münster (16th century)
Between 1533 and 1535 the Protestant leaders Jan Mattys and John of Leiden erected a short-lived theocratic kingdom in the city of Münster in Westphalia. They established an Anabaptist régime of "New Jerusalem" with chiliastic and millenarian expectations. Money was abolished and any violations of the Ten Commandments were punished by death. Despite the pietistic ideology, polygamy was allowed, and von Leiden had 17 wives. In 1535, the Prince-Bishop of Münster, Franz von Waldeck, recaptured the city, ending the existence of the kingdom.
Geneva and Zürich (16th century)
Historians debate the extent to which Geneva, Switzerland, in the days of John Calvin (1509–64) was a theocracy. On the one hand, Calvin's theology clearly called for separation between church and state. Other historians have stressed the enormous political power wielded on a daily basis by the clerics.
Deseret (LDS Church, USA)
The question of theocracy has been debated extensively by historians regarding the Latter-Day Saint communities in Illinois and (especially) in Utah.
Massachusetts Colony
From 1620 until the American Revolution (but with many lingering traces extending into the modern era), Massachusetts colonies operated as strict theocracies, in which every white resident was required to belong to the Congregational (Puritan) Church. The leaders of the communities generally believed that they were carrying out the will of God, and they were often ministers. No religious deviation was tolerated. Any members of other sects were (initially) dispatched to Rhode Island. Later other forms of religious discrimination were uniformly practiced with governmental approval. (Today's Massachusetts and Maine formed one single colony/state until 1820.)
Persia/Iran
During the Achaemenid Empire (550 to 330 BCE), Zoroastrianism functioned as the state religion, with formalized worship. The Persian kings were known to be pious Zoroastrians and they ruled with a Zoroastrian form of law called asha. Cyrus the Great, who founded the empire, avoided imposing the Zoroastrian faith on the inhabitants of conquered territory. Cyrus's kindness towards Jews has been cited as sparking Zoroastrian influence on Judaism.
Florence under Savonarola
The short rule (1494–1498) of Girolamo Savonarola, a Dominican Order priest, over the city of Florence had features of a theocracy. During his rule, "unchristian" books, statues, poetry, and other items were burned (in the Bonfire of the Vanities), sodomy was made a capital offense, and other Christian practices became law.
Quebec
Quebec under the premiership of Maurice Duplessis (1936-1939 and 1944–1959) had attributes of a Roman Catholic theocracy. The church controlled education and healthcare, books and films were censored, drive-in movie theatres were illegal, religion had strong influence over civil law (for example, only churches could conduct marriages, and divorce was banned), and Jehovah's Witnesses were persecuted. This theocracy ended in 1960 with the beginning of the Quiet Revolution (1960-1966).
Prince-Bishopric of Montenegro
The Prince-Bishopric of Montenegro existed as a Serbian Orthodox ecclesiastical principality from 1516 until 1852. The principality was located around modern-day Montenegro. It emerged from the Eparchy of Cetinje, later known as the Metropolitanate of Montenegro and the Littoral, whose bishops defied the Ottoman Empire overlordship and transformed the parish of Cetinje into a de facto theocracy, ruling it as Metropolitans ( Vladike, also known as prince-bishops). The first prince-bishop was Vavila. The system was transformed into a hereditary one by Danilo Šćepčević, bishop of Cetinje from 1697 to 1735. He united the several tribes of Montenegro into fighting the Ottoman Empire that had occupied all of Montenegro (as the Sanjak of Montenegro and Montenegro Vilayet) and most of southeastern Europe at the time.
Polynesia
Pitirim Sorokin identified theocratic régimes in traditional Polynesia.
India
The state of Travancore adopted a form of theocracy in the 18th century under the King Marthanda Varma by donating the country to the Hinduism deity Vishnu, and thereafter rule as the vice-regent of the deity. It is known as Thrippadidanam. The holding of the ritual might be a tactics move by the king on the model of the strategies of countries in Europe.
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