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Copy editing (also known as copyediting and manuscript editing) is the process of revising written material ("copy") to improve quality and readability, as well as ensuring that a text is free of errors in grammar, style, and accuracy. The Chicago Manual of Style states that manuscript editing encompasses "simple mechanical corrections (mechanical editing) through sentence-level interventions (linear editing) to substantial remedial work on literary style and clarity, disorganized passages, baggy prose, muddled tables and figures, and the like (substantive editing)". In the context of print publication, copy editing is done before typesetting and again before proofreading. Outside traditional book and journal publishing, the term "copy editing" is used more broadly, and is sometimes referred to as proofreading; the term sometimes encompasses additional tasks.
Although copy editors are generally expected to make simple revisions to smooth awkward passages, they do not have a license to rewrite a text line by line, nor do they prepare material on an author's behalf. (Creating original content to be published under another person's name is called "ghostwriting".) Furthermore, copy editors are expected to query structural and organizational problems, but they are not expected to fix these problems. In addition, copy editors do not normally engage in "developmental editing", which includes helping an author develop an idea into a publishable manuscript, overhauling a rough draft, identifying gaps in subject coverage, devising strategies for more-effective communication of content, and creating features to enhance the final product and make it more competitive in the marketplace. (2025). 9780520286726, University of California Press. ISBN 9780520286726
In the United States and Canada, an editor who does this work is called a copy editor. An organization's highest-ranking copy editor, or the supervising editor of a group of copy editors, may be known as the "copy chief", "copy desk chief", or "news editor". In the United Kingdom, the term "copy editor" is used, but in newspaper and magazine publishing, the term is subeditor (or "sub-editor"), commonly shortened to "sub".Lozano, George A. Ethics of Using Language Editing Services in an Era of Digital Communication and Heavily Multi-Authored Papers. Retrieved 24 July 2014. In the context of the Internet, online copy refers to the textual content of . Similar to print, online copy editing is the process of revising and preparing the raw or draft text of web pages for publication.
Copy editing has three levels: light, medium, and heavy. Depending on the budget and scheduling of the publication, the publisher will let the copy editor know what level of editing to employ. The chosen type of editing will help the copy editor prioritize their efforts.
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Proper spelling and punctuation are subjective in some cases, where they must be left to the discretion of the copy editor or the publisher. Most publishing firms use a widely recognized style guide such as the New Oxford Style Manual, The Chicago Manual of Style and The Canadian Style. Companies that produce documents and reports but do not consider themselves publishers in the usual sense tend to rely on in-house style guides or on the judgment of the copy editor.
Although copy editors are not responsible for factual correctness of the document, they can provide comments for the author on any information that they know to be untrue, such as year discrepancies or misleading ideas. Such fact-checking is acceptable for copy editors who know the document's subject matter.
The copy editor must also point out any biased language without infringing on the author's meaning. This includes material "that might form the basis for a lawsuit alleging libel, invasion of privacy, or obscenity". Some see censoring biased language as political correctness, so it is important that the copy editor distinguish between the two. To do this, the copy editor will permit intentional "politically incorrect" views and censor only marginalized, offensive, or exclusive language.
Some manuscripts may require special cross-checking. For example, in a how-to text, a copy editor might need to verify that the list of equipment or parts matches the instructions given within the text.
Typecoding is the process of identifying which sections of the manuscript are not regular running text. These portions of text, known as elements, include the following:
It is the copy editor's job to typecode (or make note of) all manuscript elements for the publication designer. Cyranoworks.com Hard-copy copy editors are usually asked to pencil in the type codes in the left margin of the manuscript. On-screen copy editors may be asked to insert type codes at the beginning and end of each element.
Finally, if the manuscript contains long quotations from a published work that is still under copyright, the copy editor should remind the author to acquire permission to reprint those quotations. The same goes for the reprinting of tables, charts, graphs, and illustrations that have appeared in print. Rules vary for the reproduction of unpublished materials (letters, diaries, etc.)
Each medium (in print and on screen) has its own affordances, and although a copy editor may prefer one editing process over the other, copy editors are practically required to use both techniques.
After the globalization of the book from 1800 to 1970 came the rise of American writers and editors. One editor in particular, Maxwell Perkins, was sought out by writers such as Fitzgerald, Hemingway, and Wolfe because he greatly improved the work of these prominent authors with his editorial eye. Perkins was known for editing, guiding, and befriending his writers – but the times were changing.Luey, Beth (2009). Modernity and Print III: The United States 1890–1970, A Companion to the History of the Book, p. 369. Wiley-Blackwell, Oxford. .
In the late 19th century, the role of an editor was to decide if a manuscript was good enough to be published. As time passed, the role of an editor and publisher became more distant. Although there was a newfound relationship between editors and authors, thoughtful editing did not end.
Copy editors were employed at various publishing houses, magazines, journals, and by private authors seeking revisions to their work. Some copy editors were even employed by public relations and advertising firms who valued strong editing practices in their business. (2025). 9780312152703, Bedford/St. Martin's. ISBN 9780312152703
The symbols used by copy editors today are based on those that have been used by proofreaders since the beginnings of publishing, though they have undergone some changes over time. However, the exact beginnings of the copyediting language used today are unclear. Despite its long history, copyediting as a practice has not experienced any extreme upheaval other than the desktop publishing revolution of the 1980s. This phenomenon began as the result of a series of inventions that were released during the middle of this decade, and refers to the growth of technology usage in the field of copyediting. Namely, the development of the Xerox Star computer, with its Viewpoint desktop environment and the Xerox multilingual character code (the precursor of Unicode); as well as others, such as the Macintosh computer, the HP LaserJet by Hewlett-Packard, and software for desktop publishing called PageMaker allowed the revolution to begin. By allowing both individuals and publishing agencies alike to cheaply and effectively begin to edit compositions entirely on-screen rather than by hand, desktop publishing revolution morphed copyediting into the practice it is today. Most copy editors today rely on more modern WYSIWYG (what you see is what you get) text processors such as Microsoft Word that are based on the original PageMaker to do their work.
There were a few events that led to changes within copyediting as a career. One of these, the successful strike of the editorial department of the Newark Ledger from November 17, 1934, to March 28, 1935, was "the first major action of its kind by any local guild ... it both confirmed the irreversibility of the guilds' movement away from the professional association idea and greatly accelerated that process". Paired with another string of strikes led by The New York Newspaper Guild against a number of smaller newspapers in the summer of 1934, these actions served to shift the image of the editorial worker as a "professional" to one as an average citizen. Another strike from the year 1934 was the strike at the Macaulay Company, reportedly the first-ever strike to occur at a publishing firm. At the conclusion of the second Macaulay strike, which occurred three months after the first, the nationwide drive towards unionization had entered the publishing industry and was "sweeping through all the major publishing houses".
Owing to the rise of the Digital Age, the roles and responsibilities of a copy editor have changed. For instance, beginning in 1990, copy editors learned pagination electronically. They could now look at multiple pages of a text on multiple screens and easily make their edits in that environment, as opposed to pasting physical paper cut-outs onto a board by hand. This technological advance also required that copy editors learn new software such as Adobe InDesign, QuarkXPress, Affinity Publisher or Scribus.
Modern copy editors are often required to edit for digital as well as print versions of the text. Digital copyediting requires copy editors to understand , social media (such as Twitter and Facebook), and HTML. What should be accounted for is that, in this digital age, information is constantly being released, which has led to a decline in the editing of the online versions. Editors of the website BuzzFeed commented that sometimes they "simply can't get to every post before it's published". While copy editors still do traditional tasks such as checking facts, grammar, style, and writing headlines, some of their duties have been pushed aside to make way for technology. Some copy editors now have to design page layouts and some even edit video content. Copy editors are now sometimes referred to as "copy/layout editors" or "producers/designers".
The nearly universal adoption of computerized systems for editing and layout in newspapers and magazines has also led copy editors to become more involved in the design and the technicalities of production. Technical knowledge is therefore sometimes considered as important as writing ability, though this is truer in journalism than it is in book publishing. Hank Glamann, the co-founder of the American Copy Editors Society, made the following observation about ads for copy editor positions at American newspapers:
We want them to be skilled grammarians and wordsmiths and write bright and engaging headlines and must know Quark. But, often, when push comes to shove, we will let every single one of those requirements slide except the last one because you have to know that in order to push the button at the appointed time.
Many copyeditors have a college degree, often in journalism, communications, or the language of the writing that they edit. Additionally, some copy editors take it upon themselves to gain a background in topics that would further help their careers. For instance, some copy editors may seek knowledge and background in statistics to help catch mistakes related to data within an article to help authors have a better chance of getting published.
In the United States, copy editing is often taught as a college journalism course, though its name varies. The courses often include news design and pagination.
In the United States, The Dow Jones Newspaper Fund sponsors internships that include two weeks of training. Also, the American Press Institute, the Poynter Institute, the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, UC San Diego Extension, and conferences of the American Copy Editors Society offer mid-career training for newspaper copy editors and news editors (news copy desk supervisors).
Most U.S. newspapers and publishers give copy-editing job candidates an editing test or a tryout. These vary widely and can include general items such as acronyms, current events, math, punctuation, and skills such as the use of AP Stylebook, headline writing, infographics editing, and journalism ethics.
Copy editors can also be trained in other software programs to ensure accuracy within a writer's work. Whether using programs like Illustrator, Publisher, or Photoshop, copy editors can obtain skills in using different types of software to help catch further errors that may be present in a writer's work. Due to new developments in technology and its various uses, the training and skills that would help a copy editor are expected to change in the future.
Understanding these distinctions is useful for authors, publishers, and editors to ensure that each piece of content undergoes the appropriate level of scrutiny and refinement before reaching its audience.
Copy-editing symbols cannot be used in digital editing because they are not supported by tools such as track changes. With more posting online and less printing on paper, hard-copy can no longer keep pace with digital publishing. For a publisher to hire copy editors to print a hard copy, make edits, and then make changes is no longer the most efficient process. The position of copy editors is at risk because software can correct grammatical errors more quickly and cheaply.
Professionals feared that the introduction of digital editing software would end copyediting careers. Copy editors are still employed and needed for heavy edits, such as fact-checking and content organization, which are beyond the abilities of the software. With grammar checker and journalists who can edit, copy editors are seen as a luxury in publishing. The potential for a company to use editing software may also require the copy editor to only perform heavy editing and querying. Though the steps for copyediting are the same, the execution has been adapted for digital environments.
Copy editors must now consider multimedia aspects of the story, such as video, images, audio, and search engine optimization, which may be included in digital publications. Digital editing now requires copy editors to understand SEO, HTML, CSS, and RSS feeds, as well as creative tools like Adobe Illustrator. This shows that the age of copy editing has now surpassed traditional methods of editing. The basics of checking grammar and punctuation are still necessary, but in the age of technology, the field of copy-editing has grown to include digital editing of various forms of media. Contemporary copy editors now have to review and understand current technology to help authors gain credibility in today's digital age.
In response to such high demands for fast-produced content, some online publications have started publishing articles first and then editing later, a process known as back-editing. Editors prioritize stories to edit based on traffic and whether the content was originally reported for needing edits.
Reading material has become increasingly accessible to users with a wide range of disabilities. Carolyn Rude exemplifies such cases in alternatively replacing illustrations with text and audio translations for the visually impaired. (2025). 032133082X, Longman. 032133082X Rude also suggests that web developers attempt to stick to print guidelines, such as "clear and simple language and consistent terms and navigation devices", especially when readers are looking at text in a second language.
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