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A reconnaissance satellite or intelligence satellite (commonly, although unofficially, referred to as a spy satellite) is an Earth observation satellite or communications satellite deployed for military or espionage applications.
The first generation type (i.e., Corona and Zenit) took photographs, then ejected canisters of photographic film which would descend back down into Earth's atmosphere. Corona capsules were retrieved in mid-air as they floated down on . Later, spacecraft had digital imaging systems and downloaded the images via encrypted radio links.
In the United States, most information available about reconnaissance satellites is on programs that existed up to 1972, as this information has been Declassification due to its age. Some information about programs before that time is still classified information, and a small amount of information is available on subsequent missions.
A few up-to-date reconnaissance satellite images have been declassified on occasion, or leaked, as in the case of KH-11 photographs which were sent to Jane's Defence Weekly in 1984, or US President Donald Trump tweeting a classified image of the aftermath of a failed test of Iran's Safir rocket in 2019.
During the mid-late 1950s, both the United States and the Soviet Union took interest into reconnaissance satellites. The United States began the CORONA project, which encompassed several series of launches starting in 1959 and ending in 72. This program was made a priority to photograph denied areas, replace the U-2, and due to public concern about a technological gap between the West and the Soviet Union.Angelo, Joseph A. (14 May 2014). Encyclopedia of Space and Astronomy. Infobase. p. 489. It was expedited significantly after the shooting of a U-2 in 1960.
Meanwhile, in the Soviet Union, a decree that authorized the development of Sputnik apparently authorized a program for a satellite to be used for photo reconnaissance. This design evolved into Vostok, while another version became Zenit, which was an unmanned reconnaissance satellite. Zenit was launched from 1961 to 1994, however the last flight in 1994 was as a test payload.
Both the CORONA and Zenit satellites had to be recovered in order to access the used film, making them distinct from future reconnaissance satellites that could transmit photos without returning film to earth.Gorin, Peter (1997). "Zenit: Corona's Soviet Counterpart". In Robert A. McDonald (ed.). Corona: Between the Sun and the Earth: the first NRO reconnaissance eye in space. Bethesda, MD: The American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing. pp. 84–107.
On 28 August 2013, it was thought that "a $1-billion high-powered spy satellite capable of snapping pictures detailed enough to distinguish the make and model of an automobile hundreds of miles below" was launched from California's Vandenberg Air Force Base using a Delta IV Heavy launcher, America's highest-payload space launch vehicle at the time.
On 17 February 2014, a Russian Kosmos-1220 originally launched in 1980 and used for naval missile targeting until 1982, made an uncontrolled atmospheric entry.
During his 1980 State of the Union Address, President Jimmy Carter argued that all of humanity benefited from the presence of American spy satellites:
Reconnaissance satellites have been used to enforce human rights, through the Satellite Sentinel Project, which monitors atrocities in Sudan and South Sudan.
Additionally, companies such as GeoEye and DigitalGlobe have provided commercial satellite imagery in support of natural disaster response and humanitarian missions.
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