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A roller coaster is a type of amusement ride employing a form of elevated Railway track that carries passengers on a train through tight turns, steep slopes, and other elements. Roller coasters are usually designed to produce a thrilling experience, though some roller coasters aim to provide a more gentle experience. Trains consist of open cars connected in a single line, and tracks are typically built and designed as a complete circuit in which trains depart from and return to the same loading station. The rides are often found in theme park around the world. The Roller Coaster DataBase estimates there are approximately 6,000 extant roller coasters .
The earliest progenitors to the modern roller coasters were the "Russian Mountains", which first appeared in the 17th century. LaMarcus Adna Thompson obtained one of the first known patents for a track-based roller coaster design in 1885, based on the Switchback Railway which opened a year earlier at Coney Island. Today, most roller coasters are built out of steel, which can allow for more intense forces and inversions (where the rider is upside down).
The Riding Mountain (aka La Grande Glisade) entertainment pavilion designed by Bartolomeo Francesco Rastrelli for Tsarskoye Selo royal residence was built in 1754–1757. In Russian it was known as Katalnaya gora (Катальная гора, literally "Mountain for riding") It was a huge building in the shape of rotunda. It had a trail with five hills, which could be covered with ice in winter. In the summertime, the trails used trolleys on wheels secured in the steel grooves mounted on the wooden trails. Due to a pendulum-like motion based on inertia, all five hills could be traversed in one ride.Agata Pietrzak, Chopin na rollercoasterze The ride was engineered by Russian scientist Andrey Nartov. Katalnaya gora was dismantled in 1792–1795. Currently in its place is the Granite Terrace in the Catherine Park.
Two early forms of roller coaster were built in France in 1817. Les Montagnes de Belleville ( Les Montagnes Russes à Belleville) in Belleville, Paris had wheels attached to carriages and locked on tracks.
The Promenades Aériennes, opened in Parc Beaujon in Paris on July 8, 1817Fierro, Alfred, Histoire et Dictionnaire de Paris p. 613 had wheeled cars securely locked to the track, guide rails to keep them on course, and higher speeds.Urbanowicz, Steven J. (2002). The Roller Coaster Lover's Companion; Kensington, New York: Citadel Press. . It spawned half a dozen imitators, but their popularity soon declined.
However, during the Belle Epoque they returned to fashion. In 1887, Catalan entrepreneur Joseph Oller, co-founder of the Moulin Rouge music hall, constructed the Montagnes Russes de Belleville, "Russian Mountains of Belleville" with of track laid out in a double-eight, later enlarged to four figure-eight-shaped loops.Valérie RANSON-ENGUIALE, " Promenades aériennes ", Histoire par l'image en, consulté le 26 Mai 2017. URL : http://www.histoire-image.org/etudes/promenades-aeriennes
Using this idea as a basis, LaMarcus Adna Thompson began work on a gravity Switchback Railway that opened in 1884 at Coney Island in Brooklyn, New York. Passengers climbed to the top of a platform and rode a bench-like car down the track up to the top of another tower where the vehicle was switched to a return track and the passengers took the return trip. This track design was soon replaced with an oval complete circuit. In 1885, Phillip Hinkle introduced the first full-circuit coaster with a lift hill, the Gravity Pleasure Road, which became the most popular attraction at Coney Island. Not to be outdone, in 1886 Thompson patented his design of roller coaster that included dark tunnels with painted scenery. "Scenic railways" were soon found in across the county.
In 1959, Disneyland introduced a design breakthrough with Matterhorn Bobsleds, the first permanent roller coaster to use a tubular steel track. Designed by Arrow Development, the tubular track was unlike standard rail design on wooden coasters, allowing the track to bend in sharper angles in any direction, leading to the incorporation of loops, corkscrews, and inversion elements into track layouts. A little more than a decade later, the immediate success of The Racer at Kings Island in 1972 sparked a new era of roller coaster enthusiasm, which led to a resurgence across the amusement park industry over the next several decades.
Another explanation is that the phrase originated from a ride located in a Roller rink in Haverhill, Massachusetts, in 1887. A toboggan-like sled was raised to the top of a track which consisted of hundreds of rollers. This Roller Toboggan then took off down gently rolling hills to the floor. The inventors of this ride, Stephen E. Jackman and Byron B. Floyd, say they were the first to use the term "roller coaster".
The term jet coaster is used for roller coasters in Japan, where such amusement park rides are very popular.Robb and Elissa Alvey. "Theme Park Review: Japan 2004", themeparkreview.com. Retrieved on March 18, 2008.
In many languages, including most Romance languages, the name refers to "Russian mountains". Conversely, in Russian, they are called "Американские горки" ( Amerikanskiye gorki, "American hills"). In the Scandinavian languages, the roller coaster is referred as "mountain-and-valley railway". German has the word Achterbahn, stemming from Figur-8-Bahn, relating to the form of the number 8 ( acht in German). This is similar to the Dutch Achtbaan, in which acht also means "eight".
Not all coasters feature a lift hill, however. A train may also be set into motion by a launch mechanism such as a flywheel, linear induction motor, linear motor, hydraulic launch, or drive tire. Some launched roller coasters are capable of reaching greater speeds using less track when compared to traditional coasters that rely on a conventional lift hill.
A brake run at the end of the circuit is the most common method of stopping a roller coaster train as it returns to the station. One notable exception is a Powered coaster, which instead of relying on gravity uses one or more motors to propel the trains along the course.
Roller coasters exert multiple types of force on the rider. Acceleration is felt during the launch of a roller coaster.
The block system prevents these trains from colliding. In this system, the track is divided into two or more sections known as blocks.
Wheels are a critical part in roller coaster design. The purpose of wheels is to keep the train on the track and to prevent it from flying off. A majority of roller coaster wheels are made from polyurethane. There are three kinds of roller coaster wheels which include road wheels, side friction wheels, and up-stop wheels. Road wheels ride on top of the track. Side friction wheels ride on the side of the track to keep the train on the track throughout turns. Up-stop wheels ride below the track and prevent the train from lifting off the track.
A third classification type is often referred to as a hybrid roller coaster, which use a mixture of wood and steel elements for the track and structure. Many, for example, have a track made out of steel and a support structure made from wood. RMC has notably redesigned wood coasters that have either deteriorated from age or been deemed by parks as too costly to maintain. RMC often replaces the wood track with their patented steel I-Box track design, while reusing much of the ride's wooden structure, resulting in a smoother ride with the incorporation of new design elements, such as inversions, sharper turns, and steeper drops.
Although the term "hybrid roller coaster" wasn't used until the 21st century, one of the oldest examples is Cyclone at Luna Park, which opened in 1927. It features a wood track and steel structure. Other older examples include mine train roller coasters, many of which were built by Arrow Dynamics. The term hybrid became more prominent after the introduction of New Texas Giant at Six Flags Over Texas in 2011. Many in the industry, however, continue to classify coasters strictly by their track type only, labeling them either steel or wood.
Modern roller coasters are constantly evolving to provide a variety of different experiences. More focus is being placed on the position of riders in relation to the overall experience. Traditionally, riders sit facing forward, but variations such as stand-up and flying models position the rider in different ways to change the experiences. A flying model, for example, places riders lying down and facing forward with their chests and feet strapped in. Other ways of enhancing the experience involve removing the floor beneath passengers riding above the track, as featured in floorless roller coasters. Unique track elements, such as new inversions, are often introduced to provide entirely new experiences. One variation, a shuttle roller coaster, reverses at some point throughout the course of the ride to traverse the same track backwards. Parks have also experimented with using virtual reality to augment the coaster experience.
, a coaster, operated at Six Flags Magic Mountain from 1997 to 2024. It was not typically classified as a strata coaster due to its shuttle coaster design, where trains do not travel a complete circuit.
Scenic railways
In 1827, a mining company in Summit Hill, Pennsylvania constructed the Mauch Chunk Switchback Railway, a downhill gravity railroad used to deliver coal to Mauch Chunk, Pennsylvania – now known as Jim Thorpe. "Roller Coaster History: Early Years In America". Retrieved on July 26, 2007. By the 1850s, the "Gravity Road" (as it became known) was selling rides to thrill seekers. Railway companies used similar tracks to provide amusement on days when ridership was low.
Popularity, decline, and revival
By 1919, the first underfriction roller coaster had been developed by John Miller. Over the next decade, roller coasters spread to amusement parks around the world and began an era in the industry often referred to as the "Golden Age". One of the most well known from the period is the historical Cyclone that opened at Coney Island in 1927. The onset of the Great Depression in the 1930s, however, significantly impacted the amusement park industry and brought an end to the rapid growth experienced during the Golden Age. This aside, roller coasters were still built with varying success from location to location. In May 1932, the Scene Railway witnessed somewhat of a revival in the UK, including the opening of the roller coaster at Great Yarmouth. Today it is one of only two scenic railways still in operation in the UK. East England theme parks during COVID-19. RideRater. 13 June 2021. Retrieved 7 March 2023.
Etymology
There are several explanations for the name roller coaster. It is said to have originated from an early American design where slides or ramps were fitted with rollers over which a sled would coast. This design was abandoned in favor of fitting the wheels to the sled or other vehicles, but the name endured.
Mechanics
Roller coaster trains are not typically powered. Most are pulled up a lift hill by a chain or cable and released downhill. The potential energy accumulated by the rise in height is transferred to kinetic energy, which is then converted back into potential energy as the train rises up the next hill. Changes in elevation become smaller throughout the track's course, as some mechanical energy is lost to friction and air drag. A properly-designed, outdoor track will result in a train having enough kinetic energy to complete the entire course under a variety of stressful weather conditions.
Safety
Roller coasters are statistically very safe when compared to other activities, although accidents still occur. The International Association of Amusement Parks and Attractions (IAAPA) reports that a rider has one chance in 15.5 million of being injured on a ride. Also, "In a typical year, more than 385 million guests enjoyed in excess of 1.7 billion rides at approximately 400 North American fixed-site facilities". IAAPA is required to report annual ride incidents to the National Safety Council.
Safety mechanisms and technology
A variety of safety mechanisms protect riders on roller coasters.
Block system
Most large roller coasters have the ability to run two or more trains at once.
Seat restraints
Seat restraints are used to ensure that riders stay in their seats throughout the ride.
Types of restraints
Restraint locking mechanisms
Braking systems
Braking systems such as pivoting pawls are used on the bottom of the train and on the inclined lift hill. While the train goes up the lift hill, it is pulled by a chain. The pawl moves over bumps that are separated closely apart. In the event that the train ever becomes disconnected from the chain, the anti roll-back system will engage and it will fall back into the nearest downhill stop preventing the train from falling down the lift hill. This system creates the loud "clicking" sound that is heard on the lift hill of roller coasters.
Programmable logic controller
Another key to safety is the programmable logic controller, an essential component of a roller coaster's computer system. Multiple controllers work together to detect faults associated with operation and automate decisions to engage various elements (e.g. lift, brakes, etc.). Periodic maintenance and visual inspection by ride engineers are also important to verify that structures and materials are within expected wear tolerances and functioning correctly. Effective operating procedures further enhance safety. Fairgrounds and amusement parks: Guidance on safe practice. Health and Safety Executive. November 2017. Retrieved 7 March 2023.
Roller coaster design and statistics
Roller coaster design is another important aspect that requires a working knowledge of Kinematics to enhance ride comfort and avoid harmful strain to the rider. Ride designers must carefully analyze the movement a ride subjects its riders to, ensuring it is within a reasonable tolerance. The human body needs sufficient time to react to sudden changes in force in order to control muscle tension and avoid harmful consequences such as whiplash. Designers typically stay in the range of as a maximum for positive g-force acceleration, which increases the feeling of weight and pushes riders downward into their seat. High positive g-forces can lead to the sensation of a greyout or a G-LOC. For negative g-force (which causes the sensation of weightlessness and airtime), the target is as a maximum. These fall into a range considered safe to a majority of the population. Lateral acceleration is also typically kept under , using various techniques including the banking of curves, which increases vertical acceleration and reduces lateral acceleration.
Health concerns
Some sources have shown concern over the ability of roller coasters to cause head trauma and serious injury such as the tearing of axons and damaging of blood vessels.
Types
Roller coasters are divided into two main categories: steel roller coasters and wooden roller coasters. Steel coasters have tubular steel tracks, and compared to wooden coasters, they are typically known for offering a smoother ride and their ability to turn riders upside-down. Wooden coasters have flat steel tracks, and is usually supported with a Latticework or truss. The vast majority of roller coasters operating today are made with steel. Newer types of track, such as I-Box and Topper introduced by Rocky Mountain Construction (RMC), improve the ride experience on wooden coasters, lower maintenance costs, and add the ability to invert riders.
By train type
By model
By track layout
By mechanics
By height
Several height classifications have been used by parks and manufacturers in marketing their roller coasters, as well as enthusiasts within the industry. One classification, the kiddie coaster, is a roller coaster specifically designed for younger riders. Following World War II, parks began pushing for more of them to be built in contrast to the height and age restrictions of standard designs at the time. Companies like Philadelphia Toboggan Company (PTC) developed scaled-down versions of their larger models to accommodate the demand. These typically featured lift hills smaller than , and still do today. The rise of kiddie coasters soon led to the development of "junior" models that had lift hills up to . A notable example of a junior coaster is the Sea Dragon – the oldest operating roller coaster from PTC's designer John Allen – which opened at Wyandot Lake in 1956 near Powell, Ohio.
Hypercoaster
A hypercoaster, occasionally stylized as hyper coaster, is a type of roller coaster with a height or drop of at least . Moonsault Scramble, which debuted at Fuji-Q Highland in 1984, was the first to break this barrier, though the term hypercoaster was first coined by Cedar Point and Arrow Dynamics with the opening of Magnum XL-200 in 1989. Hypercoasters have become one of the most predominant types of roller coasters in the world, now led by manufacturers Bolliger & Mabillard and Intamin.
Giga coaster
A giga coaster is a type of roller coaster with a height or drop of at least . The term was coined during the construction of the Millennium Force, a roller coaster built by Intamin on Cedar Point amusement park. Morgan and Bolliger & Mabillard have both also produced roller coasters in this class.
Strata coaster
A strata coaster is a type of roller coaster with a height or drop of at least . As with the other two height classifications, the term strata was first introduced by Cedar Point with the release of Top Thrill Dragster, a roller coaster that opened in 2003. Kingda Ka was the second strata coaster, and it opened at Six Flags Great Adventure in 2005 as the tallest roller coaster in the world with a height of . Top Thrill Dragster closed in 2021 following an incident in which a guest was severely injured while standing in line. The ride was subsequently refurbished and modified, and it reopened in 2024 as Top Thrill 2. Kingda Ka closed on November 10, 2024.
Exa coaster
An exa coaster is a type of roller coaster with a height or drop of at least . The term exa was first introduced by Intamin for Falcons Flight, a coaster expected to open at Qiddiya in 2025. Upon completion, it will be the tallest roller coaster in the world, surpassing the previous record once held by the now-defunct Kingda Ka.
Major roller coaster manufacturers
Gallery
See also
Notes
Further reading
(2025). 9780760319291, Motorbooks International. ISBN 9780760319291
(2014). 9781500699963, Createspace Independent Publishing. ISBN 9781500699963
External links
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