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Parkinsonism is a clinical syndrome characterized by tremor, bradykinesia (slowed movements), rigidity, and balance disorder. (2025). 9780071423601, Lange: McGraw-Hill Medical. ISBN 9780071423601
Both hypokinetic features (bradykinesia and akinesia) and hyperkinetic features (cogwheel rigidity and tremors at rest) are displayed in parkinsonism. These are the four motor signs that are found in Parkinson's disease (PD)after which Parkinsonism is namedand in dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB), Parkinson's disease dementia (PDD), and many other conditions.
This set of signs occurs in a wide range of conditions and may have many causes, including neurodegenerative conditions, drugs, , metabolic diseases, and neurological conditions other than Parkinson's disease.
Parkinsonism gait problems can lead to falls and serious physical injuries. Other common signs and symptoms include:
Chronic manganese (Mn) exposure has been shown to produce a parkinsonism-like illness characterized by movement abnormalities. This condition is not responsive to typical therapies used in the treatment of PD, suggesting an alternative pathway than the typical loss within the substantia nigra. Manganese may accumulate in the basal ganglia, leading to the abnormal movements that characterize parkinsonism. A mutation of the SLC30A10 gene, a manganese efflux transporter necessary for decreasing intracellular Mn, has been linked with the development of this parkinsonism-like disease. The Lewy body typical to PD are not seen in Mn-induced parkinsonism.
Agent Orange may be a cause of parkinsonism, although evidence is inconclusive and further research is needed.
Other toxins that have been associated with parkinsonism are:
Implicated medications include:
Signs and symptoms
Parkinsonism is a clinical syndrome characterized by the four motor signs that are found in Parkinson's disease: tremor, bradykinesia (slowed movements), rigidity, and balance disorder.
Conditions
Parkinsonism occurs in many conditions.
Neurological
Neurodegenerative conditions and Parkinson-plus syndromes that can cause parkinsonism include: (2025). 9789997625885, Taylor & Francis. ISBN 9789997625885
Infectious
Toxins
Evidence exists to show a link between exposure to pesticides and herbicides and PD; a two-fold increase in risk was seen with paraquat or maneb/mancozeb exposure.
Vascular
Vascular Parkinsonism is typically caused by mini strokes. It typically affects gait, often marked with rigidity. Multiple conditions related to Vascular Parkinsonism include:
Other
Differential diagnosis
Secondary parkinsonism, including vascular parkinsonism and drug-induced parkinsonism.
Drug-induced parkinsonism
About 7% of people with parkinsonism developed symptoms as a result of side effects of medication, mainly neuroleptic especially the (such as perphenazine and chlorpromazine), (such as flupentixol and zuclopenthixol) and (such as haloperidol), and rarely, . Yet another drug that can induce parkinsonism is the antihistaminic medication cinnarizine, usually prescribed for motion sickness; this is because besides antagonizing histamine receptors this drug antagonizes the dopamine D2 receptors. The incidence of drug-induced parkinsonism increases with age. Drug-induced parkinsonism tends to remain at its presenting level and does not worsen like Parkinson's disease.
Society and culture
In the United States, the 2021 National Defense Authorization Act (NDAA) added parkinsonism to the list of presumptive conditions associated with Agent Orange exposure, enabling affected service members to receive Veterans Affairs disability benefits.
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