Monism attributes oneness or singleness () to a concept, such as to existence. Various kinds of monism can be distinguished:
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Priority monism states that all existing things go back to a source that is distinct from them; e.g., in Neoplatonism everything is derived from The One. In this view only the One is ontologically fundamental or prior to everything else.
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Existence monism posits that, strictly speaking, there exists only a single thing, the universe, which can only be artificially and arbitrarily divided into many things.
[Strawson, G. (2014 in press): "Nietzsche's metaphysics?". In: Dries, M. & Kail, P. (eds): "Nietzsche on Mind and Nature". Oxford University Press. PDF of draft]
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Substance monism asserts that a variety of existing things can be explained in terms of a single reality or substance. Substance monism posits that only one kind of substance exists, although many things may be made up of this substance, e.g., matter or mind.
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Dual-aspect monism is the view that the mental and the physical are two aspects of, or perspectives on, the same substance.
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Neutral monism believes the fundamental nature of reality to be neither mental nor physical; in other words it is "neutral".
Definitions
There are two sorts of definitions for monism:
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The wide definition: a philosophy is monistic if it postulates unity of the origin of all things; all existing things return to a source that is distinct from them.
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The restricted definition: this requires not only unity of origin but also unity of Substance theory and essence.
Although the term monism is derived from Western philosophy to typify positions in the mind–body problem, it has also been used to typify religious traditions. In modern Hinduism, the term "absolute monism" has been applied to Advaita Vedanta, though Philip Renard points out that this may be a Western interpretation, bypassing the intuitive understanding of a nondual reality. It is more generally categorized by scholars as a form of absolute nondualism.[Stepaniants, M. (2002). Introduction to Eastern Thought. United States: AltaMira Press. p. 155.][Roberts, M. V. (2010). Dualities: A Theology of Difference. Presbyterian Publishing Corporation. . p. 21. Discusses why Advaita Vedanta is nondual while Kashmir Shaivism is monist.][Frawley, D. (2015). Shiva: The Lord of Yoga. United States: Lotus Press.]
History
Material monism can be traced back to the
pre-Socratic philosophers who sought to understand the arche or basic principle of the universe in terms of different material causes. These included
Thales, who argued that the basis of everything was water, Anaximenes, who claimed it was air, and
Heraclitus who believed it to be fire. Later,
Parmenides described the world as "One", which could not change in any way. Zeno of Elea defended this view of everything being a single entity through his paradoxes, which aim to show the existence of time, motion and space to be illusionary.
Baruch Spinoza argued that 'God or Nature' ( Deus sive Natura) is the only Substance theory of the universe, which can be referred to as either 'God' or 'Nature' (the two being interchangeable). This is because God/Nature has all the possible attributes and no two substances can share an attribute, which means there can be no other substances than God/Nature.
Monism has been discussed thoroughly in Indian philosophy and Vedanta throughout their history starting as early as the Rig Veda. The term monism was introduced in the 18th century by Christian von Wolff in his work Logic (1728),[ to designate types of philosophical thought in which the attempt was made to eliminate the dichotomy of body and mind and explain all phenomena by one unifying principle, or as manifestations of a single substance.]
The mind–body problem in philosophy examines the relationship between mind and matter, and in particular the relationship between consciousness and the brain. The problem was addressed by René Descartes in the 17th century, resulting in Cartesian dualism, and by pre-Aristotelianism philosophers,
in
Avicennism,
and in earlier Asian and more specifically Indian traditions.
Monism was later also applied to the theory of absolute identity set forth by Hegel and Schelling. Thereafter the term was more broadly used, for any theory postulating a unifying principle. The opponent thesis of dualism also was broadened, to include pluralism. According to Urmson, as a result of this extended use, the term is "systematically ambiguous".
According to Jonathan Schaffer, monism lost popularity due to the emergence of analytic philosophy in the early twentieth century, which revolted against the neo-Hegelians. Rudolf Carnap and A. J. Ayer, who were strong proponents of positivism, "ridiculed the whole question as incoherent mysticism".
The mind–body problem has reemerged in social psychology and related fields, with the interest in mind–body interaction and the rejection of Cartesian mind–body dualism in the Type physicalism, a modern form of monism. Monism is also still relevant to the philosophy of mind, where various positions are defended.
Types
Different types of monism include:
[Schaffer, Jonathan, Monism: The Priority of the Whole, http://www.jonathanschaffer.org/monism.pdf]
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Substance theory monism, "the view that the apparent plurality of substances is due to different states or appearances of a single substance"
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Attributive monism, "the view that whatever the number of substances, they are of a single ultimate kind"
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Epistemological monism, where "ultimately, everything that can be thought, observed and engaged, shares one conceptual system of interaction, however complex."
[Sariel, Aviram. "Jonasian Gnosticism." Harvard Theological Review 116.1 (2023): 91-122, here 99.]
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Partial monism, "within a given realm of being (however many there may be) there is only one substance"
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Existence monism, "the view that there is only one concrete object token (The One, "Τὸ Ἕν" or the Monad)"
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Priority monism, "the whole is prior to its parts" or "the world has parts, but the parts are dependent fragments of an integrated whole"
[
]
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Property monism, "the view that all properties are of a single type (e.g., only physical properties exist)"
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Genus monism, "the doctrine that there is a highest category; e.g., being"
[
]
Views contrasting with monism are:
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Metaphysical dualism, which asserts that there are two ultimately irreconcilable substances or realities such as Good and Evil, for example, Gnosticism and Manichaeism.
[
]
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Metaphysical pluralism, which asserts three or more fundamental substances or realities.
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Metaphysical nihilism, negates any of the above categories (substances, properties, concrete objects, etc.).
Monism in modern philosophy of mind can be divided into three broad categories:
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Idealist, mentalistic monism, which holds that only mind or spirit exists.
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Neutral monism, which holds that one sort of thing fundamentally exists, to which both the mental and the physical can be reduced
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Material monism (also called Physicalism and materialism), which holds that the material world is primary, and consciousness arises through the interaction with the material world
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Eliminative materialism, according to which everything is physical and mental things do not exist
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Reductive physicalism, according to which mental things do exist and are a kind of physical thing
Certain positions do not fit easily into the above categories, such as functionalism, anomalous monism, and reflexive monism. Moreover, they do not define the meaning of "real".
Monistic philosophers
Pre-Socratic
While the lack of information makes it difficult in some cases to be sure of the details, the following pre-Socratic philosophers thought in monistic terms:
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Thales: Water
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Anaximander: Apeiron (meaning 'the undefined infinite'). Reality is some, one thing, but we cannot know what.
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Anaximenes of Miletus: Air
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Heraclitus: Change, symbolized by fire (in that everything is in constant flux).
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Parmenides: Being or Reality is an unmoving perfect sphere, unchanging, undivided.
Post-Socrates
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Neopythagorians such as Apollonius of Tyana centered their cosmologies on the Monad or One.
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Stoics taught that there is only one substance, identified as God.
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Middle Platonism under such works as those by Numenius taught that the Universe emanates from the Monad or One.
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Neoplatonism is monistic. Plotinus taught that there was an ineffable transcendent god, 'The One', of which subsequent realities were emanations. From The One emanates the Divine Mind (Nous), the Cosmic Soul (Psyche), and the World (Cosmos).
Modern
Monistic neuroscientists
Religion
Pantheism
Pantheism is the belief that everything composes an all-encompassing,
immanent God,
or that the
universe (or
nature) is identical with
divinity.
(1998). 019861263X, Clarendon. 019861263X
Pantheists thus do or do not believe in a
personal god or
anthropomorphic god, but believe that interpretations of the term differ.
Pantheism was popularized in the modern era as both a theology and philosophy based on the work of the 17th-century philosopher Baruch Spinoza,
whose
Ethics was an answer to
Descartes' famous dualist theory that the body and spirit are separate.
[ Spinoza held that the two are the same, and this monism is a fundamental quality of his philosophy. He was described as a "God-intoxicated man," and used the word God to describe the unity of all substance.]
H. P. Owen claimed that
Pantheism is closely related to monism, as pantheists too believe all of reality is one substance, called Universe, God or Nature. Panentheism, a slightly different concept, is explained below in the next section.[Crosby, Donald A. (2008). Living with Ambiguity: Religious Naturalism and the Menace of Evil. State University of New York Press. p. 124. .] Some of the most famous pantheists are the Stoics, Giordano Bruno and Spinoza.
Panentheism
Panentheism (from Greek language πᾶν (pân) "all"; ἐν (en) "in"; and θεός (theós) "God"; "all-in-God") is a belief system that postulate that the divine (be it a monotheistic God, polytheistic gods, or an eternal cosmic animating force) interpenetrates every part of nature, but is not one with nature. Panentheism differentiates itself from pantheism, which holds that the divine is synonymous with the universe.
In panentheism, there are two types of substance, "pan" the universe and God. The universe and the divine are not ontologically equivalent. God is viewed as the eternal animating force within the universe. In some forms of panentheism, the cosmos exists within God, who in turn "transcends", "pervades" or is "in" the cosmos.
While pantheism asserts that 'All is God', panentheism claims that God animates all of the universe, and also transcends the universe. In addition, some forms indicate that the universe is contained within God,[ like in the Judaic concept of Tzimtzum. Much Hindu thought is highly characterized by panentheism and pantheism.][[2] Britannica – Pantheism and Panentheism in non-Western cultures][Whiting, Robert. Religions for Today Stanley Thomes (Publishers) Ltd. P. VIII. .]
Paul Tillich has argued for such a concept within Christian theology, as has liberal biblical scholar Marcus Borg and mystical theologian Matthew Fox, an Episcopal priest.
Pandeism
Pandeism or pan-deism (from and meaning "god" in the sense of deism) is a term describing beliefs coherently incorporating or mixing reconcilable elements of pantheism (that "God", or a metaphysically equivalent creator deity, is identical to Nature) and classical deism (that the creator-god who designed the universe no longer exists in a status where it can be reached, and can instead be confirmed only by reason). It is therefore most particularly the belief that the creator of the universe actually became the universe, and so ceased to exist as a separate entity.[Alex Ashman, BBC News, " Metaphysical Isms".]
Through this synergy pandeism claims to answer primary objections to deism (why would God create and then not interact with the universe?) and to pantheism (how did the universe originate and what is its purpose?).
Indian and East Asian religions
Characteristics
The central problem in Asian (religious) philosophy is not the body-mind problem, but the search for an unchanging Real or Absolute beyond the world of appearances and changing phenomena, and the search for liberation from dukkha and the liberation from the cycle of rebirth. In Hinduism, Substance theory prevails, seeing Brahman as the unchanging real beyond the world of appearances. In Buddhism, process ontology is prevalent, seeing reality as sunyata of an unchanging essence.
Characteristic for various Asian philosophy, technology and religions is the discernment of levels of truth, an emphasis on intuitive-experiential understanding of the Absolute such as jnana, bodhi and , and the technology of yin and yang used within East Asian medicine with an emphasis on the integration of these levels of truth and its understanding.
Hinduism
Vedanta
Vedanta is the inquiry into and systematisation of the Vedas and Upanishads, to harmonise the various and contrasting ideas that can be found in those texts. Within Vedanta, different schools exist:
[Wilhelm Halbfass (1995), Philology and Confrontation: Paul Hacker on Traditional and Modern Vedanta, State University of New York Press, , pages 137–143]
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Vishishtadvaita, qualified monism, is from the school of Ramanuja;
[Jeaneane Fowler (2012), The Bhagavad Gita: A Text and Commentary for Students, Sussex Academic Press, , page xxviii]
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Shuddhadvaita, in-essence monism, is the school of Vallabha;
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Dvaitadvaita, differential monism, is a school founded by Nimbarka;
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Achintya Bheda Abheda, a school of Vedanta founded by Chaitanya Mahaprabhu representing the philosophy of inconceivable one-ness and difference. It can be understood as an integration of the strict dualist (dvaita) theology of Madhvacharya and the qualified monism (vishishtadvaita) of Ramanuja.
Modern Hinduism
The colonisation of India by the British had a major impact on Hindu society. In response, leading Hindu intellectuals started to study western culture and philosophy, integrating several western notions into Hinduism. This modernised Hinduism, at its turn, has gained popularity in the west.
A major role was played in the 19th century by Swami Vivekananda in the revival of Hinduism, and the spread of Advaita Vedanta to the west via the Ramakrishna Mission. His interpretation of Advaita Vedanta has been called Neo-Vedanta. In Advaita, Shankara suggests meditation and Nirvikalpa Samadhi are means to gain knowledge of the already existing unity of Brahman and Atman, not the highest goal itself:
Vivekananda, according to Gavin Flood, was "a figure of great importance in the development of a modern Hindu self-understanding and in formulating the West's view of Hinduism." Central to his philosophy is the idea that the divine exists in all beings, that all human beings can achieve union with this "innate divinity", and that seeing this divine as the essence of others will further love and social harmony. According to Vivekananda, there is an essential unity to Hinduism, which underlies the diversity of its many forms. According to Flood, Vivekananda's view of Hinduism is the most common among Hindus today. This monism, according to Flood, is at the foundation of earlier Upanishads, to theosophy in the later Vedanta tradition and in modern Neo-Hinduism.
Buddhism
According to the Pāli Canon, both pluralism (
nānatta) and monism (
ekatta) are speculative views. A
Theravada commentary notes that the former is similar to or associated with
nihilism (
ucchēdavāda), and the latter is similar to or associated with eternalism (
sassatavada).
[David Kalupahana, Causality: The Central Philosophy of Buddhism. The University Press of Hawaii, 1975, page 88. The passage is SN 2.77.]
Levels of truth
Within Buddhism, a rich variety of philosophical and pedagogical models can be found. Various schools of Buddhism discern levels of truth:
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The Two truths doctrine of the Madhyamaka
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The Three natures of the Yogacara
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Essence-Function, or Absolute-relative in Chinese and Korean Buddhism
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The Trikaya-formule, consisting of
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The Dharmakāya or Truth body which embodies the very principle of enlightenment and knows no limits or boundaries;
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The Sambhogakāya or body of mutual enjoyment which is a body of bliss or clear light manifestation;
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The Nirmāṇakāya or created body which manifests in time and space.
[Welwood, John (2000). The Play of the Mind: Form, Emptiness, and Beyond, accessed January 13, 2007]
The Prajnaparamita-sutras and Madhyamaka emphasize the Nondualism of form and emptiness: "form is emptiness, emptiness is form", as the heart sutra says. In Chinese Buddhism this was understood to mean that ultimate reality is not a transcendental realm, but equal to the daily world of relative reality. This idea was well-situated for the existing Chinese culture, which emphasized the mundane world and society. But this does not tell how the absolute is present in the relative world:
This question is answered in such schemata as Five Ranks, the Ten Bulls, and Hakuin's Four ways of knowing.
Sikhism
Sikhism complies with the concept of Absolute Monism. Sikh philosophy advocates that all that our senses comprehend is an illusion; God is the ultimate reality. Forms being subject to time shall pass away. God's Reality alone is eternal and abiding.
The thought is that Atma (soul) is born from, and a reflection of, ParamAtma (Supreme Soul), and "will again merge into it", in the words of the fifth guru of Sikhs,
Guru Arjan, "just as water merges back into the water."
God and Soul are fundamentally the same; identical in the same way as Fire and its sparks. "Atam meh Ram, Ram meh Atam" which means "The Ultimate Eternal reality resides in the Soul and the Soul is contained in Him". As from one stream, millions of waves arise and yet the waves, made of water, again become water; in the same way all souls have sprung from the Universal Being and would blend again into it.
Abrahamic faiths
Judaism
Jewish thought considers God as separate from all physical, created things and as existing outside of time.
According to Maimonides, God is an Incorporeality that caused all other existence; to admit to God is tantamount to admitting complexity to God, which is a contradiction to God as the first cause and constitutes heresy.[See Foundations of the Law, Chapter 1] While Hasidic mystics considered the existence of the physical world a contradiction to God's simpleness, Maimonides saw no contradiction.
According to Hasidic thought (particularly as propounded by the 18th century, early 19th-century founder of Chabad, Shneur Zalman of Liadi), God is held to be immanent within creation for two interrelated reasons:
-
A very strong Jewish belief is that "the Divine life-force which brings the into existence must constantly be present ... were this life-force to forsake the for even one brief moment, it would revert to a state of utter nothingness, as before the creation ..."
-
Simultaneously, Judaism holds as that God is an absolute unity, and that he is perfectly simple, thus, if his sustaining power is within nature, then his essence is also within nature.
Christianity
Creator–creature distinction
Christians maintain that God created the universe
ex nihilo and not from his own substance, so that the creator is not to be confused with creation, but rather transcends it. There is a movement of "Christian Panentheism".
Rejection of radical dualism
In
On Free Choice of the Will,
Augustine argued, in the context of the problem of evil, that evil is not the opposite of good, but rather merely the absence of good, something that does not have existence in itself. Likewise, C. S. Lewis described evil as a "parasite" in
Mere Christianity, as he viewed evil as something that cannot exist without good to provide it with existence. Lewis went on to argue against dualism from the basis of
moral absolutism, and rejected the dualistic notion that God and
Satan are opposites, arguing instead that God has no equal, hence no opposite. Lewis rather viewed Satan as the opposite of Michael the archangel. Due to this, Lewis instead argued for a more limited type of dualism.
[Lewis, C. S. 1970, "God and Evil" in God in the Dock: Essays in Theology and Ethics, ed. W. Hooper, Grand Rapids, Michigan: Eerdsman, pp. 21–24] Other theologians, such as Greg Boyd, have argued in more depth that the Biblical authors held a "limited dualism", meaning that God and Satan do engage in real battle, but only due to free will given by God, for the duration that God allows.
[Boyd, Gregory. A 1971, God at War, Downers Grove, Illinois: InterVarsity Press, p. 185]
Mormonism
Mormonism theology also expresses a form of dual-aspect monism via
materialism and eternalism, claiming that creation was ex materia (as opposed to ex nihilo in conventional Christianity), as expressed by
Parley Pratt and echoed in view by the movement's founder
Joseph Smith, making no distinction between the spiritual and the material, these being not just similarly eternal, but ultimately two manifestations of the same reality or substance.
Parley Pratt implies a vitalism paired with evolutionary adaptation noting, "these eternal, self-existing elements possess in themselves certain inherent properties or attributes, in a greater or less degree; or, in other words, they possess intelligence, adapted to their several spheres."
Parley Pratt's view is also similar to Gottfried Leibniz's monadology, which holds that "reality consists of mind atoms that are living centers of force."
Brigham Young anticipates a proto-mentality of elementary particles with his vitalist view, "there is life in all matter, throughout the vast extent of all the eternities; it is in the rock, the sand, the dust, in water, air, the gases, and in short, in every description and organization of matter; whether it be solid, liquid, or gaseous, particle operating with particle."
The LDS conception of matter is "essentially dynamic rather than static, if indeed it is not a kind of living energy, and that it is subject at least to the rule of intelligence."
John A. Widstoe held a similar, more vitalist view, that "Life is nothing more than matter in motion; that, therefore, all matter possess a kind of life... Matter... is intelligence... hence everything in the universe is alive." However, Widstoe resisted outright affirming a belief in panpsychism.
Islam
Quran
Vincent Cornell argues that the
Quran provides a monist image of God by describing reality as a unified whole, with God being a single concept that would describe or ascribe all existing things.
But most argue that Abrahamic religious scriptures, especially the Quran, see creation and God as two separate existences. It explains that everything has been created by God and is under his control, but at the same time distinguishes creation as being dependent on the existence of God.[
]
Sufism
Some Sufi mystics advocate monism. One of the most notable being the 13th-century Persian poet
Rumi (1207–1273) in his didactic poem
Masnavi espoused monism.
[ Reynold Nicholson Rumi ] Rumi says in the
Masnavi,
Other Sufi mystics however, such as Ahmad Sirhindi, upheld dualistic Monotheism (the separation of God and the Universe).[Saleem, Abdul Qadeer. A CRITICAL STUDY OF MUJADDID ALF-E THANI'S PHILOSOPHY. Diss. University of Karachi, 1998. pp.59-60]
The most influential of the monists was the Sufi philosopher Ibn Arabi (1165–1240). He developed the concept of 'unity of being' (Arabic: Sufi metaphysics), which some argue is a monistic philosophy. Born in al-Andalus, he made an enormous impact on the Muslim world, where he was crowned "the great Master". In the centuries following his death, his ideas became increasingly controversial. Ahmad Sirhindi criticised monistic understanding of 'unity of being', advocating the dualistic-compatible 'unity of witness' (Arabic: wahdat ash-shuhud), maintaining separation of creator and creation.[Siddiqui, B. H. "Islam: Synthesis of Tradition and Change."][Ansari, Abdul Haq. "SHAYKH AḤMAD SIRHINDĪ'S DOCTRINE OF" WAḤDAT AL-SHUHŪD"." Islamic Studies 37.3 (1998): 281-313.][Knysh, Alexander D. Ibn'Arabi in the later Islamic tradition: The making of a polemical image in medieval Islam. Suny Press, 1999.][Nizami, F. A. "23 Islam in the Indian Sub-Continent." The World's Religions (2004): 368.] Later, Shah Waliullah Dehlawi reconciled the two ideas maintaining that their differences are semantic differences, arguing that the universal existence (which is different in creation to creator) and the divine essence are different and that the universal existence emanates (in a non-platonic sense) from the divine essence and that the relationship between them is similar to the relationship between the number four and a number being even.[Ansari, Abdul Haq. "Shah waliy Allah Attempts to Revise wahdat al-wujud." Arabica 35.2 (1988): 197-213.]
Shi'ism
The doctrine of
Sufi metaphysics also enjoys considerable following in the rationalist philosophy of Twelver Shi'ism, with the most famous modern-day adherent being Ruhollah Khomeini.
[Knysh, Alexander. "'Irfan' Revisited: Khomeini and the Legacy of Islamic Mystical Philosophy", 633.]
Baháʼí Faith
Although the teachings of the Baháʼí Faith have a strong emphasis on social and ethical issues, there exist a number of foundational texts that have been described as mystical.
Some of these include statements of a monist nature (e.g.,
The Seven Valleys and the
Hidden Words). The differences between dualist and monist views are reconciled by the teaching that these opposing viewpoints are caused by differences in the observers themselves, not in that which is observed. This is not a 'higher truth/lower truth' position. God is unknowable. For man it is impossible to acquire any direct knowledge of God or the Absolute, because any knowledge that one has, is relative.
See also
Notes
Sources
Further reading
External links
