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A ferrite is one of a family of iron oxide-containing magnetic ceramic materials. They are ferrimagnetic, meaning they are attracted by magnetic fields and can be Magnetization to become . Unlike many ferromagnetic materials, most ferrites are not electrically-conductive, making them useful in applications like for to suppress .
Ferrites can be divided into two groups based on their magnetic coercivity, their resistance to being demagnetized:
"Hard" ferrites have high coercivity, so are difficult to demagnetize. They are used to make permanent magnets for applications such as refrigerator magnets, , and small .
"Soft" ferrites have low coercivity, so they easily change their magnetization and act as conductors of magnetic fields. They are used in the electronics industry to make efficient called for high-frequency , and antennas, and in various microwave components.
Ferrite compounds are extremely low cost, being made mostly of iron oxide, and have excellent corrosion resistance. Yogoro Kato and Takeshi Takei of the Tokyo Institute of Technology synthesized the first ferrite compounds in 1930. (2025). 9781424456260 ISBN 9781424456260
They are typically composed of α-iron(III) oxide (e.g. hematite ) with one, or more additional, metallic element oxides, usually with an approximately Stoichiometry formula of MO·Fe2O3 such as Fe(II) such as in the common mineral magnetite composed of Fe(II)-Fe(III)2O4. Above 585 °C Fe(II)-Fe(III)2O4 transforms into the non-magnetic gamma phase. Fe(II)-Fe(III)2O4 is commonly seen as the black iron(II) oxide coating the surface of cast-iron cookware). The other pattern is M·Fe(III)2O3, where M is another metallic element. Common, naturally occurring ferrites (typically members of the spinel group) include those with nickel (NiFe2O4) which occurs as the mineral trevorite, magnesium containing magnesioferrite (MgFe2O4), cobalt (cobalt ferrite), or manganese (MnFe2O4) which occurs naturally as the mineral jacobsite. Less often bismuth, strontium, zinc as found in franklinite, aluminum,yittrium, or barium ferrites are used (2025). 9780387462707, Springer. ISBN 9780387462707 In addition, more complex synthetic alloys are often used for specific applications.
Many ferrites adopt the Spinel group chemical structure with the Chemical formula , where A and B represent various metal , one of which is usually iron (Fe). Spinel ferrites usually adopt a crystal motif consisting of cubic close-packed (fcc) oxides (oxygen) with A cations occupying one eighth of the tetrahedral holes, and B cations occupying half of the octahedral holes, i.e., . An exception exists for ɣ-Fe2O3 which has a spinel crystalline form and is widely used a magnetic recording substrate.
However the structure is not an ordinary Spinel Structure, but rather the inverse spinel structure: One eighth of the tetrahedral holes are occupied by B cations, one fourth of the octahedral sites are occupied by A cations. and the other one fourth by B cation. It is also possible to have mixed structure spinel ferrites with formula , where is the degree of inversion.This is an example.
The magnetic material known as "Zn Fe" has the formula , with occupying the octahedral sites and occupying the tetrahedral sites, it is an example of normal structure spinel ferrite. (2025). 9780716748786, W.H. Freeman. ISBN 9780716748786
Some ferrites adopt hexagonal crystal structure, like barium and strontium ferrites () and ().
In terms of their magnetic properties, the different ferrites are often classified as "soft", "semi-hard" or "hard", which refers to their low or high magnetic coercivity, as follows.
The most common soft ferrites are:
For use with radio frequency above 0.5 MHz but below 5 MHz, Mn Zn ferrites are used; above that, Ni Zn is the usual choice. The exception is with common mode inductors, where the threshold of choice is at 70 MHz.
Moreover, cobalt ferrite's magnetostrictive properties can be tuned by inducing a magnetic uniaxial anisotropy. This can be done by magnetic annealing, magnetic field assisted compaction, or reaction under uniaxial pressure. This last solution has the advantage to be ultra fast (20 min) thanks to the use of spark plasma sintering. The induced magnetic anisotropy in cobalt ferrite is also beneficial to enhance the magnetoelectric effect in composite.
The most common hard ferrites are:
Iron oxide and (barium carbonate or strontium carbonate) are used in manufacturing of hard ferrite magnets.
For barium and strontium ferrites, these metals are typically supplied as their carbonates, Barium carbonate or SrCO3. During the heating process, these carbonates undergo calcination:
Small and geometrically easy shapes may be produced with dry pressing. However, in such a process small particles may agglomerate and lead to poorer magnetic properties compared to the wet pressing process. Direct calcination and sintering without re-milling is possible as well but leads to poor magnetic properties.
Ferrite cores for electromagnets can be pre-sintered as well (pre-reaction), milled and pressed. However, the sintering takes place in a specific atmosphere, for instance one with an oxygen shortage. The chemical composition and especially the structure vary strongly between the precursor and the sintered product.
To allow efficient stacking of product in the furnace during sintering and prevent parts sticking together, many manufacturers separate ware using ceramic powder separator sheets. These sheets are available in various materials such as alumina, zirconia and magnesia. They are also available in fine, medium and coarse particle sizes. By matching the material and particle size to the ware being sintered, surface damage and contamination can be reduced while maximizing furnace loading.
Ferrites are also found as a lump in a computer cable, called a ferrite bead, which helps to prevent high frequency electrical noise (radio frequency interference) from exiting or entering the equipment; these types of ferrites are made with lossy materials to not just block (reflect), but also absorb and dissipate as heat, the unwanted higher-frequency energy.
Early computer memory stored data in the residual magnetic fields of hard ferrite cores, which were assembled into arrays of core memory. Ferrite powders are used in the coatings of magnetic tape.
Ferrite particles are also used as a component of radar-absorbing materials or coatings used in stealth aircraft and in the absorption tiles lining the rooms used for electromagnetic compatibility measurements.
Most common audio magnets, including those used in loudspeakers and electromagnetic instrument pickups, are ferrite magnets. Except for certain "vintage" products, ferrite magnets have largely displaced the more expensive Alnico magnets in these applications. In particular, for hard hexaferrites today the most-common uses are still as permanent magnets in refrigerator seal gaskets, microphones and loudspeakers, small motors for cordless appliances, and in automobile applications.
Ferrite magnets find applications in electric power steering systems and automotive sensors due to their cost-effectiveness and corrosion resistance. Ferrite magnets are known for their high magnetic permeability and low electrical conductivity, making them suitable for high-frequency applications. In electric power steering systems, they provide the necessary magnetic field for efficient motor operation, contributing to the system's overall performance and reliability. Automotive sensors utilize ferrite magnets for accurate detection and measurement of various parameters, such as position, speed, and fluid levels.
Due to ceramic ferrite magnet's weaker magnetic fields compared to superconducting magnets, they are sometimes used in low-field or open MRI systems. These magnets are favored in certain cases due to their lower cost, stable magnetic field, and ability to function without the need for complex cooling systems.
Ferrite nanoparticles exhibit superparamagnetic properties.
Barium hexaferrite (BaO•6Fe2O3) was discovered in 1950 at the Philips Natuurkundig Laboratorium ( Philips Physics Laboratory). The discovery was somewhat accidental—due to a mistake by an assistant who was supposed to be preparing a sample of hexagonal lanthanum ferrite for a team investigating its use as a semiconductor material. On discovering that it was actually a magnetic material, and confirming its structure by X-ray crystallography, they passed it on to the magnetic research group.Marc de Vries, 80 Years of Research at the Philips Natuurkundig Laboratorium (1914-1994), p. 95, Amsterdam University Press, 2005 . Barium hexaferrite has both high coercivity (170 kA/m) and low raw material costs. It was developed as a product by Philips Industries (Netherlands) and from 1952 was marketed under the trade name Ferroxdure.Raul Valenzuela, Magnetic Ceramics, p. 76, Cambridge University Press, 2005 . Also Mullard's Magnadur. The low price and good performance led to a rapid increase in the use of permanent magnets.R. Gerber, C.D. Wright, G. Asti, Applied Magnetism, p. 335, Springer, 2013
In the 1960s Philips developed strontium hexaferrite (SrO•6Fe2O3), with better properties than barium hexaferrite. Barium and strontium hexaferrite dominate the market due to their low costs. Other materials have been found with improved properties. BaO•2(FeO)•8(Fe2O3) came in 1980. and Ba2ZnFe18O23 came in 1991.Raul Valenzuela, Magnetic Ceramics, p. 76-77, Cambridge University Press, 2005 .
Semi-hard ferrites
Hard ferrites
In contrast, permanent ferrite are made of hard ferrites, which have a high coercivity and high remanence after magnetization. The high coercivity means the materials are very resistant to becoming demagnetized, an essential characteristic for a permanent magnet. They also have high magnetic permeability. These so-called ceramic magnets are cheap, and are widely used in household products such as refrigerator magnets. The maximum magnetic field is about 0.35 tesla and the magnetic field strength is about 30–160 kiloampere turns per meter (400–2000 ). The density of ferrite magnets is about 5 g/cm3.
Production
Ferrites are produced by heating a mixture of the oxides of the constituent metals at high temperatures, as shown in this idealized equation: (1995). 9780470132616 ISBN 9780470132616
In some cases, the mixture of finely-powdered precursors is pressed into a mold.
After this step, the two oxides combine to give the ferrite. The resulting mixture of oxides undergoes sintering.
Processing
Having obtained the ferrite, the cooled product is milled to particles smaller than 2 μm, sufficiently small that each particle consists of a single magnetic domain. Next the powder is pressed into a shape, dried, and re-sintered. The shaping may be performed in an external magnetic field, in order to achieve a preferred orientation of the particles (anisotropy).
Uses
are used in electronic , , and where the high electrical resistance of the ferrite leads to very low eddy current losses.
(2025). 9780128222331 ISBN 9780128222331
History
Yogoro Kato and Takeshi Takei of the Tokyo Institute of Technology synthesized the first ferrite compounds in 1930. This led to the founding of TDK Corporation in 1935, to manufacture the material.
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