Electrical resistivity and conductivity

 ( Physical Quantities ) 

Electrical resistivity (also called specific electrical resistance or volume resistivity) and its inverse, electrical conductivity, is a fundamental property of a material that quantifies how strongly it resists or conducts electric current. A low resistivity indicates a material that readily allows electric current. Resistivity is commonly represented by the Greek alphabet ρ (rho). The SI unit of electrical resistivity is the ohm-meter (Ω⋅m).

Narinder Kumar (2020). 9788170085928, Laxmi Publications. . ISBN 9788170085928

Eric Bogatin (2020). 9780130669469, Prentice Hall Professional. . ISBN 9780130669469

For example, if a solid cube of material has sheet contacts on two opposite faces, and the resistance between these contacts is 1 Ω, then the resistivity of the material is 1 Ω⋅m.

Electrical conductivity or specific conductance is the reciprocal of electrical resistivity. It represents a material's ability to conduct electric current. It is commonly signified by the Greek letter σ (sigma), but κ (kappa) (especially in electrical engineering) and γ (gamma) are sometimes used. The SI unit of electrical conductivity is siemens per metre (S/m).

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Definition

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Ideal case In an ideal case, cross-section and physical composition of the examined material are uniform across the sample, and the electric field and current density are both parallel and constant everywhere. Many and conductors do in fact have a uniform cross section with a uniform flow of electric current, and are made of a single material, so that this is a good model. (See the adjacent diagram.) When this is the case, the electrical resistivity ρ (Greek: rho) can be calculated by:

$\backslash rho\; =\; R\; \backslash frac\{A\}\{\backslash ell\},\; \backslash ,\backslash !$

where

$R$ is the electrical resistance of a uniform specimen of the material

$\backslash ell$ is the length of the specimen

$A$ is the cross-sectional area of the specimen

Both resistance and resistivity describe how difficult it is to make electrical current flow through a material, but unlike resistance, resistivity is an intrinsic property. This means that all pure copper wires (which have not been subjected to distortion of their crystalline structure etc.), irrespective of their shape and size, have the same resistivity, but a long, thin copper wire has a much larger resistance than a thick, short copper wire. Every material has its own characteristic resistivity. For example, rubber has a far larger resistivity than copper.

In a hydraulic analogy, passing current through a high-resistivity material is like pushing water through a pipe full of sand—while passing current through a low-resistivity material is like pushing water through an empty pipe. If the pipes are the same size and shape, the pipe full of sand has higher resistance to flow. Resistance, however, is not solely determined by the presence or absence of sand. It also depends on the length and width of the pipe: short or wide pipes have lower resistance than narrow or long pipes.

The above equation can be transposed to get Pouillet's law (named after Claude Pouillet):

$R\; =\; \backslash rho\; \backslash frac\{\backslash ell\}\{A\}.\; \backslash ,\backslash !$

The resistance of a given material is proportional to the length, but inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area. Thus resistivity can be expressed using the SI unit "ohm metre" (Ω⋅m) — i.e. ohms divided by metres (for the length) and then multiplied by square metres (for the cross-sectional area).

For example, if A = , $\backslash ell$ = (forming a cube with perfectly conductive contacts on opposite faces), then the resistance of this element in ohms is numerically equal to the resistivity of the material it is made of in Ω⋅m.

Conductivity, σ, is the inverse of resistivity:

$\backslash sigma\; =\; \backslash frac\{1\}\{\backslash rho\}.\; \backslash ,\backslash !$

Conductivity has SI units of siemens per metre (S/m).

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General scalar case For less ideal cases, such as more complicated geometry, or when the current and electric field vary in different parts of the material, it is necessary to use a more general expression in which the resistivity at a particular point is defined as the ratio of the electric field to the current density of the current it creates at that point:

$\backslash rho=\backslash frac\{E\}\{J\},\; \backslash ,\backslash !$

where

$\backslash rho$ is the resistivity of the conductor material,

$E$ is the magnitude of the electric field,

$J$ is the magnitude of the current density,

in which $E$ and $J$ are inside the conductor.

Conductivity is the inverse (reciprocal) of resistivity. Here, it is given by:

$\backslash sigma\; =\; \backslash frac\{1\}\{\backslash rho\}\; =\; \backslash frac\{J\}\{E\}.\; \backslash ,\backslash !$

For example, rubber is a material with large ρ and small σ—because even a very large electric field in rubber makes almost no current flow through it. On the other hand, copper is a material with small ρ and large σ—because even a small electric field pulls a lot of current through it.

As shown below, this expression simplifies to a single number when the electric field and current density are constant in the material.

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! Derivation from general definition of resistivity

There are three equations to be combined here. The first is the resistivity for parallel current and electric field: $\backslash rho=\backslash frac\{E\}\{J\},\; \backslash ,\backslash !$ If the electric field is constant, the electric field is given by the total voltage V across the conductor divided by length ℓ of the conductor: $E\; =\; \backslash frac\{V\}\{\backslash ell\}$ If the current density is constant, it is equal to the total current divided by the cross sectional area: $J\; =\; \backslash frac\{I\}\{A\}$ Plugging in the values of E and J into the first expression, we obtain: $\backslash rho\; =\; \backslash frac\{V\; A\}\{I\backslash ell\}$ Finally, we apply Ohm's law, V/ I =  R. $\backslash rho\; =\; R\backslash frac\{A\}\{\backslash ell\}$

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Tensor resistivity

When the resistivity of a material has a directional component, the most general definition of resistivity must be used. It starts from the tensor-vector form of Ohm's law, which relates the electric field inside a material to the electric current flow. This equation is completely general, meaning it is valid in all cases, including those mentioned above. However, this definition is the most complicated, so it is only directly used in Anisotropy cases, where the more simple definitions cannot be applied. If the material is not anisotropic, it is safe to ignore the tensor-vector definition, and use a simpler expression instead.

Here, anisotropy means that the material has different properties in different directions. For example, a crystal of graphite consists microscopically of a stack of sheets, and current flows very easily through each sheet, but much less easily from one sheet to the adjacent one. In such cases, the current does not flow in exactly the same direction as the electric field. Thus, the appropriate equations are generalized to the three-dimensional tensor form:J.R. Tyldesley (1975) An introduction to Tensor Analysis: For Engineers and Applied Scientists, Longman, G. Woan (2010) The Cambridge Handbook of Physics Formulas, Cambridge University Press,

$\backslash mathbf\{J\}\; =\; \backslash boldsymbol\backslash sigma\; \backslash mathbf\{E\}\; \backslash ,\backslash ,\; \backslash rightleftharpoons\; \backslash ,\backslash ,\; \backslash mathbf\{E\}\; =\; \backslash boldsymbol\backslash rho\; \backslash mathbf\{J\}\; \backslash ,\backslash !$

where the conductivity σ and resistivity ρ are rank-2 , and electric field E and current density J are vectors. These tensors can be represented by 3×3 matrices, the vectors with 3×1 matrices, with matrix multiplication used on the right side of these equations. In matrix form, the resistivity relation is given by:

$$

 \begin{bmatrix} E_x \\ E_y \\ E_z \end{bmatrix} = \begin{bmatrix}
   \rho_{xx} & \rho_{xy} & \rho_{xz} \\
   \rho_{yx} & \rho_{yy} & \rho_{yz} \\
   \rho_{zx} & \rho_{zy} & \rho_{zz}
 \end{bmatrix}\begin{bmatrix} J_x \\ J_y \\ J_z \end{bmatrix}
     

where

$\backslash mathbf\{E\}$ is the electric field vector, with components ( E _x, E _y, E _z).

$\backslash boldsymbol\{\backslash rho\}$ is the resistivity tensor, in general a three by three matrix.

$\backslash mathbf\{J\}$ is the electric current density vector, with components ( J _x, J _y, J _z)

Equivalently, resistivity can be given in the more compact Einstein notation:

$\backslash mathbf\{E\}\_i\; =\; \backslash boldsymbol\backslash rho\_\{ij\}\; \backslash mathbf\{J\}\_j$

In either case, the resulting expression for each electric field component is:

$E\_x\; =\; \backslash rho\_\{xx\}\; J\_x\; +\; \backslash rho\_\{xy\}\; J\_y\; +\; \backslash rho\_\{xz\}\; J\_z.$

$E\_y\; =\; \backslash rho\_\{yx\}\; J\_x\; +\; \backslash rho\_\{yy\}\; J\_y\; +\; \backslash rho\_\{yz\}\; J\_z.$

$E\_z\; =\; \backslash rho\_\{zx\}\; J\_x\; +\; \backslash rho\_\{zy\}\; J\_y\; +\; \backslash rho\_\{zz\}\; J\_z.$

Since the choice of the coordinate system is free, the usual convention is to simplify the expression by choosing an x-axis parallel to the current direction, so J _y =  J _z = 0. This leaves:

$\backslash rho\_\{xx\}=\backslash frac\{E\_x\}\{J\_x\},\; \backslash quad\; \backslash rho\_\{yx\}=\backslash frac\{E\_y\}\{J\_x\},\; \backslash text\{\; and\; \}\backslash rho\_\{zx\}=\backslash frac\{E\_z\}\{J\_x\}.$

Conductivity is defined similarly:

$$

 \begin{bmatrix} J_x \\ J_y \\ J_z \end{bmatrix} =
 \begin{bmatrix}
   \sigma_{xx} & \sigma_{xy} & \sigma_{xz} \\
   \sigma_{yx} & \sigma_{yy} & \sigma_{yz} \\
   \sigma_{zx} & \sigma_{zy} & \sigma_{zz}
 \end{bmatrix}\begin{bmatrix} E_x \\ E_y \\ E_z \end{bmatrix}
     

or

$\backslash mathbf\{J\}\_i\; =\; \backslash boldsymbol\{\backslash sigma\}\_\{ij\}\; \backslash mathbf\{E\}\_\{j\}$

Both resulting in:

$J\_x\; =\; \backslash sigma\_\{xx\}\; E\_x\; +\; \backslash sigma\_\{xy\}\; E\_y\; +\; \backslash sigma\_\{xz\}\; E\_z$

$J\_y\; =\; \backslash sigma\_\{yx\}\; E\_x\; +\; \backslash sigma\_\{yy\}\; E\_y\; +\; \backslash sigma\_\{yz\}\; E\_z$

$J\_z\; =\; \backslash sigma\_\{zx\}\; E\_x\; +\; \backslash sigma\_\{zy\}\; E\_y\; +\; \backslash sigma\_\{zz\}\; E\_z$

Looking at the two expressions, $\backslash boldsymbol\{\backslash rho\}$ and $\backslash boldsymbol\{\backslash sigma\}$ are the matrix inverse of each other. However, in the most general case, the individual matrix elements are not necessarily reciprocals of one another; for example, σ_xx may not be equal to 1/ ρ_xx. This can be seen in the Hall effect, where $\backslash rho\_\{xy\}$ is nonzero. In the Hall effect, due to rotational invariance about the z-axis, $\backslash rho\_\{yy\}=\backslash rho\_\{xx\}$ and $\backslash rho\_\{yx\}=-\backslash rho\_\{xy\}$, so the relation between resistivity and conductivity simplifies to:

$\backslash sigma\_\{xx\}=\backslash frac\{\backslash rho\_\{xx\}\}\{\backslash rho\_\{xx\}^2\; +\; \backslash rho\_\{xy\}^2\},\; \backslash quad\; \backslash sigma\_\{xy\}\; =\; \backslash frac\{-\backslash rho\_\{xy\}\}\{\backslash rho\_\{xx\}^2\; +\; \backslash rho\_\{xy\}^2\}$

If the electric field is parallel to the applied current, $\backslash rho\_\{xy\}$ and $\backslash rho\_\{xz\}$ are zero. When they are zero, one number, $\backslash rho\_\{xx\}$, is enough to describe the electrical resistivity. It is then written as simply $\backslash rho$, and this reduces to the simpler expression.

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Conductivity and current carriers

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Relation between current density and electric current velocity

Electric current is the ordered movement of Electric charge. These charges are called current carriers. In metals and Semiconductor, Electron are the current carriers; in Electrolyte and ionized gases, Ion. In the general case, the current density of one carrier is determined by the formula:

$\backslash vec\{j\}\; =\; qn\backslash vec\{\backslash upsilon\}\_a$,

where 𝑛 is the density of charge carriers (the number of carriers in a unit volume), 𝑞 is the charge of one carrier, $\backslash vec\{\backslash upsilon\}\_a$ is the average speed of their movement. In the case where the current consists of many carriers

$\backslash vec\{j\}\; =\; \backslash sum\_j\; j\_i$.

where $j\_i$ is the current density of the $i$-th carrier.

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Causes of conductivity

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Band theory simplified

According to elementary quantum mechanics, an electron in an atom or crystal can only have certain precise energy levels; energies between these levels are impossible. When a large number of such allowed levels have close-spaced energy values – i.e. have energies that differ only minutely – those close energy levels in combination are called an "energy band". There can be many such energy bands in a material, depending on the atomic number of the constituent atomsThe atomic number is the count of electrons in an atom that is electrically neutral – has no net electric charge. and their distribution within the crystal.Other relevant factors that are specifically not considered are the size of the whole crystal and external factors of the surrounding environment that modify the energy bands, such as imposed electric or magnetic fields.

The material's electrons seek to minimize the total energy in the material by settling into low energy states; however, the Pauli exclusion principle means that only one can exist in each such state. So the electrons "fill up" the band structure starting from the bottom. The characteristic energy level up to which the electrons have filled is called the Fermi level. The position of the Fermi level with respect to the band structure is very important for electrical conduction: Only electrons in energy levels near or above the Fermi level are free to move within the broader material structure, since the electrons can easily jump among the partially occupied states in that region. In contrast, the low energy states are completely filled with a fixed limit on the number of electrons at all times, and the high energy states are empty of electrons at all times.

Electric current consists of a flow of electrons. In metals there are many electron energy levels near the Fermi level, so there are many electrons available to move. This is what causes the high electronic conductivity of metals.

An important part of band theory is that there may be forbidden bands of energy: energy intervals that contain no energy levels. In insulators and semiconductors, the number of electrons is just the right amount to fill a certain integer number of low energy bands, exactly to the boundary. In this case, the Fermi level falls within a band gap. Since there are no available states near the Fermi level, and the electrons are not freely movable, the electronic conductivity is very low.

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In metals

A metal consists of a Crystal lattice of , each with an outer shell of electrons that freely dissociate from their parent atoms and travel through the lattice. This is also known as a positive ionic lattice. Bonding (sl). ibchem.com This 'sea' of dissociable electrons allows the metal to conduct electric current. When an electrical potential difference (a voltage) is applied across the metal, the resulting electric field causes electrons to drift towards the positive terminal. The actual drift velocity of electrons is typically small, on the order of magnitude of meters per hour. However, due to the sheer number of moving electrons, even a slow drift velocity results in a large current density. The mechanism is similar to transfer of momentum of balls in a Newton's cradle

Doug Lowe (2020). 9780470147047, John Wiley & Sons. . ISBN 9780470147047

but the rapid propagation of an electric energy along a wire is not due to the mechanical forces, but the propagation of an energy-carrying electromagnetic field guided by the wire.

Most metals have electrical resistance. In simpler models (non quantum mechanical models) this can be explained by replacing electrons and the crystal lattice by a wave-like structure. When the electron wave travels through the lattice, the waves interfere, which causes resistance. The more regular the lattice is, the less disturbance happens and thus the less resistance. The amount of resistance is thus mainly caused by two factors. First, it is caused by the temperature and thus amount of vibration of the crystal lattice. Higher temperatures cause bigger vibrations, which act as irregularities in the lattice. Second, the purity of the metal is relevant as a mixture of different ions is also an irregularity. The small decrease in conductivity on melting of pure metals is due to the loss of long range crystalline order. The short range order remains and strong correlation between positions of ions results in coherence between waves diffracted by adjacent ions.

(1972). 9780521154499, Cambridge University Press. . ISBN 9780521154499

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In semiconductors and insulators

In metals, the Fermi level lies in the conduction band (see Band Theory, above) giving rise to free conduction electrons. However, in semiconductors the position of the Fermi level is within the band gap, about halfway between the conduction band minimum (the bottom of the first band of unfilled electron energy levels) and the valence band maximum (the top of the band below the conduction band, of filled electron energy levels). That applies for intrinsic (undoped) semiconductors. This means that at absolute zero temperature, there would be no free conduction electrons, and the resistance is infinite. However, the resistance decreases as the charge carrier density (i.e., without introducing further complications, the density of electrons) in the conduction band increases. In extrinsic (doped) semiconductors, dopant atoms increase the majority charge carrier concentration by donating electrons to the conduction band or producing holes in the valence band. (A "hole" is a position where an electron is missing; such holes can behave in a similar way to electrons.) For both types of donor or acceptor atoms, increasing dopant density reduces resistance. Hence, highly doped semiconductors behave metallically. At very high temperatures, the contribution of thermally generated carriers dominates over the contribution from dopant atoms, and the resistance decreases exponentially with temperature.

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In ionic liquids/electrolytes

In , electrical conduction happens not by band electrons or holes, but by full atomic species () traveling, each carrying an electrical charge. The resistivity of ionic solutions (electrolytes) varies tremendously with concentration – while distilled water is almost an insulator, Saline water is a reasonable electrical conductor. Conduction in is also controlled by the movement of ions, but here we are talking about molten salts rather than solvated ions. In cell membrane, currents are carried by ionic salts. Small holes in cell membranes, called , are selective to specific ions and determine the membrane resistance.

The concentration of ions in the liquid depends on the degree of dissociation, characterized by a dissociation coefficient $\backslash alpha$, which is determined by the ratio of the concentration of ions $N$ to the concentration of molecules of the dissolved substance $N\_0$:

$N\; =\; \backslash alpha\; N\_0$.

The specific electrical conductivity of the solution is equal to

$\backslash sigma\; =\; q\backslash left(b^+\; +\; b^-\backslash right)\backslash alpha\; N$,

where $q$: module of the ion charge, $b^+$ and $b^-$: mobility of positively and negatively charged ions, $N$: ion concentration, $\backslash alpha$: the coefficient of dissociation.

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Superconductivity

The electrical resistivity of a metallic conductor decreases gradually as temperature is lowered. In ordinary conductors, such as copper or silver, this decrease is limited by impurities and other defects. Even near absolute zero, a real sample of a normal conductor shows some resistance. In a superconductor, the resistance drops abruptly to zero when the material is cooled below its critical temperature. An electric current flowing in a loop of superconducting wire can persist indefinitely with no power source.

John C. Gallop (1990). 9780750300513, CRC Press. . ISBN 9780750300513

In 1986, researchers discovered that some cuprate-perovskite ceramic materials have much higher critical temperatures, and in 1987 one was produced with a critical temperature above . Such a high transition temperature is theoretically impossible for a conventional superconductor, so the researchers named these conductors high-temperature superconductors. Liquid nitrogen boils at 77 K, cold enough to activate high-temperature superconductors, but not nearly cold enough for conventional superconductors. In conventional superconductors, electrons are held together in pairs by an attraction mediated by lattice . The best available model of high-temperature superconductivity is still somewhat crude. There is a hypothesis that electron pairing in high-temperature superconductors is mediated by short-range spin waves known as .

D. Pines (2020). 9780306459344, Kluwer Academic. ISBN 9780306459344

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Plasma

Plasmas are very good conductors and electric potentials play an important role.

The potential as it exists on average in the space between charged particles, independent of the question of how it can be measured, is called the plasma potential, or space potential. If an electrode is inserted into a plasma, its potential generally lies considerably below the plasma potential, due to what is termed a Debye sheath. The good electrical conductivity of plasmas makes their electric fields very small. This results in the important concept of quasineutrality, which says the density of negative charges is approximately equal to the density of positive charges over large volumes of the plasma ( n_e = ⟨Z⟩> n_i), but on the scale of the Debye length there can be charge imbalance. In the special case that double layers are formed, the charge separation can extend some tens of Debye lengths.

The magnitude of the potentials and electric fields must be determined by means other than simply finding the net charge density. A common example is to assume that the electrons satisfy the Boltzmann relation:

$n\_\backslash text\{e\}\; \backslash propto\; e^\{e\backslash Phi/k\_\backslash text\{B\}\; T\_\backslash text\{e\}\}.$

Differentiating this relation provides a means to calculate the electric field from the density:

$\backslash mathbf\{E\}\; =\; -\backslash frac\{k\_\backslash text\{B\}\; T\_\backslash text\{e\}\}\{e\}\backslash frac\{\backslash nabla\; n\_\backslash text\{e\}\}\{n\_\backslash text\{e\}\}.$

(∇ is the vector gradient operator; see nabla symbol and gradient for more information.)

It is possible to produce a plasma that is not quasineutral. An electron beam, for example, has only negative charges. The density of a non-neutral plasma must generally be very low, or it must be very small. Otherwise, the repulsive electrostatic force dissipates it.

In astrophysical plasmas, Debye screening prevents electric fields from directly affecting the plasma over large distances, i.e., greater than the Debye length. However, the existence of charged particles causes the plasma to generate, and be affected by, . This can and does cause extremely complex behavior, such as the generation of plasma double layers, an object that separates charge over a few tens of . The dynamics of plasmas interacting with external and self-generated magnetic fields are studied in the academic discipline of magnetohydrodynamics.

Plasma is often called the fourth state of matter after solid, liquids and gases.Yaffa Eliezer, Shalom Eliezer, The Fourth State of Matter: An Introduction to the Physics of Plasma, Publisher: Adam Hilger, 1989, , 226 pages, page 5

Bittencourt, J.A. (2020). 9780387209753, Springer. . ISBN 9780387209753

It is distinct from these and other lower-energy states of matter. Although it is closely related to the gas phase in that it also has no definite form or volume, it differs in a number of ways, including the following:

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Resistivity and conductivity of various materials

• A conductor such as a metal has high conductivity and a low resistivity.
• An insulator like glass has low conductivity and a high resistivity.
• The conductivity of a semiconductor is generally intermediate, but varies widely under different conditions, such as exposure of the material to electric fields or specific frequencies of light, and, most important, with temperature and composition of the semiconductor material.

The degree of semiconductors doping makes a large difference in conductivity. To a point, more doping leads to higher conductivity. The conductivity of a solution of water is highly dependent on its concentration of dissolved salts, and other chemical species that Ionization in the solution. Electrical conductivity of water samples is used as an indicator of how salt-free, ion-free, or impurity-free the sample is; the purer the water, the lower the conductivity (the higher the resistivity). Conductivity measurements in water are often reported as specific conductance, relative to the conductivity of pure water at . An EC meter is normally used to measure conductivity in a solution. A rough summary is as follows:

Superconductors	0
	10−8
	Variable
	Variable
Insulators	1016
	∞

This table shows the resistivity ( ρ), conductivity and temperature coefficient of various materials at 20 Celsius (68 Fahrenheit, 293 Kelvin)

Raymond A. Serway (1998). 9780030204579, Saunders College Pub. . ISBN 9780030204579 David Griffiths (1999). 9780138053260, Prentice Hall. ISBN 9780138053260
Douglas Giancoli (2020). 9780131495081, Prentice Hall. ISBN 9780131495081
Physical constants. (PDF format; see page 2, table in the right lower corner). Retrieved on 2011-12-17.
Material properties of niobium.
AISI 1010 Steel, cold drawn. Matweb
Galinstan		3.46×106
Douglas C. Giancoli (1995). 9780131021532, Prentice Hall. . ISBN 9780131021532 (see also Table of Resistivity. hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu)
John O'Malley (1992) Schaum's outline of theory and problems of basic circuit analysis, p. 19, McGraw-Hill Professional,
Glenn Elert (ed.), "Resistivity of steel", The Physics Factbook, retrieved and archived 16 June 2011.
Y. Pauleau, Péter B. Barna, P. B. Barna (1997) Protective coatings and thin films: synthesis, characterization, and applications, p. 215, Springer, .
Hugh O. Pierson, Handbook of carbon, graphite, diamond, and fullerenes: properties, processing, and applications, p. 61, William Andrew, 1993 .
Milton Ohring (1995). 9780125249959, Academic Press. ISBN 9780125249959
Physical properties of sea water . Kayelaby.npl.co.uk. Retrieved on 2011-12-17.
[9]. chemistry.stackexchange.com
Transmission Lines data. Transmission-line.net. Retrieved on 2014-02-03.
Lawrence S. Pan, Don R. Kania, Diamond: electronic properties and applications, p. 140, Springer, 1994 .

The effective temperature coefficient varies with temperature and purity level of the material. The 20 °C value is only an approximation when used at other temperatures. For example, the coefficient becomes lower at higher temperatures for copper, and the value 0.00427 is commonly specified at . Copper Wire Tables . US Dep. of Commerce. National Bureau of Standards Handbook. February 21, 1966

The extremely low resistivity (high conductivity) of silver is characteristic of metals. George Gamow tidily summed up the nature of the metals' dealings with electrons in his popular science book One, Two, Three...Infinity (1947):

More technically, the free electron model gives a basic description of electron flow in metals.

Wood is widely regarded as an extremely good insulator, but its resistivity is sensitively dependent on moisture content, with damp wood being a factor of at least worse insulator than oven-dry. In any case, a sufficiently high voltage – such as that in lightning strikes or some high-tension power lines – can lead to insulation breakdown and electrocution risk even with apparently dry wood.

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Temperature dependence

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Linear approximation

The electrical resistivity of most materials changes with temperature. If the temperature T does not vary too much, a linear approximation is typically used:

$\backslash rho(T)\; =\; \backslash rho\_01$

where $\backslash alpha$ is called the temperature coefficient of resistivity, $T\_0$ is a fixed reference temperature (usually room temperature), and $\backslash rho\_0$ is the resistivity at temperature $T\_0$. The parameter $\backslash alpha$ is an empirical parameter fitted from measurement data. Because the linear approximation is only an approximation, $\backslash alpha$ is different for different reference temperatures. For this reason it is usual to specify the temperature that $\backslash alpha$ was measured at with a suffix, such as $\backslash alpha\_\{15\}$, and the relationship only holds in a range of temperatures around the reference.M.R. Ward (1971) Electrical Engineering Science, pp. 36–40, McGraw-Hill. When the temperature varies over a large temperature range, the linear approximation is inadequate and a more detailed analysis and understanding should be used.

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Metals

In general, electrical resistivity of metals increases with temperature. Electron–phonon interactions can play a key role. At high temperatures, the resistance of a metal increases linearly with temperature. As the temperature of a metal is reduced, the temperature dependence of resistivity follows a power law function of temperature. Mathematically the temperature dependence of the resistivity ρ of a metal is given by the Bloch–Grüneisen formula:

$\backslash rho(T)\; =\; \backslash rho(0)\; +\; A\backslash left(\backslash frac\{T\}\{\backslash Theta\_R\}\backslash right)^n\; \backslash int\_0^\backslash frac\{\backslash Theta\_R\}\{T\}\; \backslash frac\{x^n\}\{\backslash left(e^x\; -\; 1\backslash right)\backslash left(1\; -\; e^\{-x\}\backslash right)\}\; \backslash ,\; dx$

where $\backslash rho(0)$ is the residual resistivity due to defect scattering, A is a constant that depends on the velocity of electrons at the Fermi surface, the Debye radius and the number density of electrons in the metal. $\backslash Theta\_R$ is the Debye temperature as obtained from resistivity measurements and matches very closely with the values of Debye temperature obtained from specific heat measurements. n is an integer that depends upon the nature of interaction:

• n = 5 implies that the resistance is due to scattering of electrons by phonons (as it is for simple metals)
• n = 3 implies that the resistance is due to s-d electron scattering (as is the case for transition metals)
• n = 2 implies that the resistance is due to electron–electron interaction.

If more than one source of scattering is simultaneously present, Matthiessen's Rule (first formulated by Augustus Matthiessen in the 1860s)A. Matthiessen, Rep. Brit. Ass. 32, 144 (1862)A. Matthiessen, Progg. Anallen, 122, 47 (1864) states that the total resistance can be approximated by adding up several different terms, each with the appropriate value of  n.

As the temperature of the metal is sufficiently reduced (so as to 'freeze' all the phonons), the resistivity usually reaches a constant value, known as the residual resistivity. This value depends not only on the type of metal, but on its purity and thermal history. The value of the residual resistivity of a metal is decided by its impurity concentration. Some materials lose all electrical resistivity at sufficiently low temperatures, due to an effect known as superconductivity.

An investigation of the low-temperature resistivity of metals was the motivation to Heike Kamerlingh Onnes's experiments that led in 1911 to discovery of superconductivity. For details see History of superconductivity.

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Wiedemann–Franz law

The Wiedemann–Franz law states that the coefficient of electrical conductivity of metals at normal temperatures is inversely proportional to the temperature:

$\backslash sigma\; \backslash thicksim\; \{1\; \backslash over\; T\}$.

At high metal temperatures, the Wiedemann-Franz law holds:

$\{K\; \backslash over\; \backslash sigma\}\; =\; \{\backslash pi^2\; \backslash over\; 3\}\; \backslash left(\backslash frac\{k\}\{e\}\backslash right)^2\; T$,

where $K$: thermal conductivity, $k$; Boltzmann constant, $e$: electron charge, $T$: temperature, $\backslash sigma$: electrical conductivity coefficient.

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Semiconductors

In general, intrinsic semiconductor resistivity decreases with increasing temperature. The electrons are bumped to the conduction band by thermal energy, where they flow freely, and in doing so leave behind electron hole in the valence band, which also flow freely. The electric resistance of a typical intrinsic (non doped) semiconductor decreases exponentially with temperature:

$\backslash rho\; =\; \backslash rho\_0\; e^\{-aT\}\backslash ,$

An even better approximation of the temperature dependence of the resistivity of a semiconductor is given by the Steinhart–Hart equation:

$\backslash frac\{1\}\{T\}\; =\; A\; +\; B\; \backslash ln\backslash rho\; +\; C\; (\backslash ln\backslash rho)^3\; \backslash ,$

where A, B and C are the so-called Steinhart–Hart coefficients.

This equation is used to calibrate .

Extrinsic (doped) semiconductors have a far more complicated temperature profile. As temperature increases starting from absolute zero they first decrease steeply in resistance as the carriers leave the donors or acceptors. After most of the donors or acceptors have lost their carriers, the resistance starts to increase again slightly due to the reducing mobility of carriers (much as in a metal). At higher temperatures, they behave like intrinsic semiconductors as the carriers from the donors/acceptors become insignificant compared to the thermally generated carriers.J. Seymour (1972) Physical Electronics, chapter 2, Pitman

In non-crystalline semiconductors, conduction can occur by charges quantum tunnelling from one localised site to another. This is known as variable range hopping and has the characteristic form of

$\backslash rho\; =\; A\backslash exp\backslash left(T^\{-\backslash frac\{1\}\{n\}\}\backslash right),$

where n = 2, 3, 4, depending on the dimensionality of the system.

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Complex resistivity and conductivity

When analyzing the response of materials to alternating electric fields (dielectric spectroscopy), in applications such as electrical impedance tomography,Otto H. Schmitt, University of Minnesota Mutual Impedivity Spectrometry and the Feasibility of its Incorporation into Tissue-Diagnostic Anatomical Reconstruction and Multivariate Time-Coherent Physiological Measurements. otto-schmitt.org. Retrieved on 2011-12-17. it is convenient to replace resistivity with a complex number quantity called impedivity (in analogy to electrical impedance). Impedivity is the sum of a real component, the resistivity, and an imaginary component, the reactivity (in analogy to reactance). The magnitude of impedivity is the square root of sum of squares of magnitudes of resistivity and reactivity.

Conversely, in such cases the conductivity must be expressed as a complex number (or even as a matrix of complex numbers, in the case of anisotropic materials) called the Admittance. Admittivity is the sum of a real component called the conductivity and an imaginary component called the Susceptance.

An alternative description of the response to alternating currents uses a real (but frequency-dependent) conductivity, along with a real permittivity. The larger the conductivity is, the more quickly the alternating-current signal is absorbed by the material (i.e., the more opaque the material is). For details, see Mathematical descriptions of opacity.

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Resistance versus resistivity in complicated geometries

Even if the material's resistivity is known, calculating the resistance of something made from it may, in some cases, be much more complicated than the formula $R\; =\; \backslash rho\; \backslash ell\; /A$ above. One example is spreading resistance profiling, where the material is inhomogeneous (different resistivity in different places), and the exact paths of current flow are not obvious.

In cases like this, the formulas

$J\; =\; \backslash sigma\; E\; \backslash ,\backslash ,\; \backslash rightleftharpoons\; \backslash ,\backslash ,\; E\; =\; \backslash rho\; J\; \backslash ,\backslash !$

must be replaced with

$\backslash mathbf\{J\}(\backslash mathbf\{r\})\; =\; \backslash sigma(\backslash mathbf\{r\})\; \backslash mathbf\{E\}(\backslash mathbf\{r\})\; \backslash ,\backslash ,\; \backslash rightleftharpoons\; \backslash ,\backslash ,\; \backslash mathbf\{E\}(\backslash mathbf\{r\})\; =\; \backslash rho(\backslash mathbf\{r\})\; \backslash mathbf\{J\}(\backslash mathbf\{r\}),\; \backslash ,\backslash !$

where E and J are now . This equation, along with the continuity equation for J and the Poisson's equation for E, form a set of partial differential equations. In special cases, an exact or approximate solution to these equations can be worked out by hand, but for very accurate answers in complex cases, computer methods like finite element analysis may be required.

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Resistivity-density product

In some applications where the weight of an item is very important, the product of resistivity and density is more important than absolute low resistivity – it is often possible to make the conductor thicker to make up for a higher resistivity; and then a low-resistivity-density-product material (or equivalently a high conductivity-to-density ratio) is desirable. For example, for long-distance overhead power lines, aluminium is frequently used rather than copper (Cu) because it is lighter for the same conductance.

/ref> (Pure beryllium is also brittle.) Thus, aluminium is usually the metal of choice when the weight or cost of a conductor is the driving consideration.

Sodium	47.7	0.97	46	31%	2.843	0.31
Lithium	92.8	0.53	49	33%	5.531	0.33
Calcium	33.6	1.55	52	35%	2.002	0.35
Potassium	72.0	0.89	64	43%	4.291	0.43
Beryllium	35.6	1.85	66	44%	2.122	0.44
Aluminium	26.50	2.70	72	48%	1.5792	0.48	2.0	0.16
Magnesium	43.90	1.74	76	51%	2.616	0.51
Copper	16.78	8.96	150	100%	1	1	6.0	1
Silver	15.87	10.49	166	111%	0.946	1.11	456	84
Gold	22.14	19.30	427	285%	1.319	2.85	39,000	19,000
Iron	96.1	7.874	757	505%	5.727	5.05

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See also

• Charge transport mechanisms
• Chemiresistor
• Classification of materials based on permittivity
• Conductivity near the percolation threshold
• Contact resistance
• Electrical resistivities of the elements (data page)
• Electrical resistivity tomography
• Sheet resistance
• SI electromagnetism units
• Skin effect
• Spitzer resistivity

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Notes

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Further reading

• Paul Tipler (2020). 9780716708100, W. H. Freeman. ISBN 9780716708100
• Measuring Electrical Resistivity and Conductivity

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External links

• Electrical Resistivity and conductivity-Wikipedia article spoken for the blind "Audiopedia as of July 17, 2014"
• Comparison of the electrical conductivity of various elements in WolframAlpha

Categories: Physical Quantities, Materials Science

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