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The armatoles (; ; ; ), or armatole in singular, were irregular soldiers, or militia, commissioned by the Ottoman Empire to enforce the sultan's authority within an administrative district called an armatoliki (αρματολίκι in singular, αρματολίκια, armatolikia in plural). In Ottoman Greece, they were composed of Greeks who were either former or village stalwarts who had taken up arms against the klephts in the defense of their district.
The Greek armatoles had a semi-independent status all over the Greek peninsula, and armatolikia were created in areas that had high levels of brigandage (i.e. klephts), or in regions that were difficult for Ottoman authorities to govern due to the inaccessible terrain, such as the Agrafa mountains of Thessaly, where the first armatoliki was established in the 15th century. Over time, the roles of the armatoles and klephtes became blurred, with both reversing their roles and allegiances as the situation demanded, all the while maintaining the delicate status-quo with the Ottoman authorities. They were armed men who were enforcing the law according to their desires with the force of their guns, armata, since the authority of the Ottoman Empire was very limited in the areas that they were acting, as the Ottoman Empire where the armatoles were present was a failed state. Albanians armatoles were employed by Ottoman authorities, and in particular in the latter half of the 18th century, during the administration of the Ottoman Albanian ruler Ali Pasha of the increasingly independent Pashalik of Yanina he replaced Greek armatoles, making the regions armatoles almost exclusively Albanian. The thus deposed Greek armatoles became klephts and their subsequent anti-armatoloi activity was not only brigandage, but also a form of resistance against Ottoman rule.
During the Greek War of Independence, the Greek armatoles, along with the klephts, formed the nucleus of the Greek fighting forces, and played a prominent part throughout its duration. Yannis Makriyannis referred to them and klephts as the "yeast of liberty" ( μαγιά της λευτεριάς). Despite being ineffective, they were the only viable military force for the provisional governments of the 1821-1827 period. During that time period, three attempts were made at creating a regular army, and one of the reasons for their failure was the resistance of the klepht and armatoles leaders. Their motive to fight the Ottomans was more personal gain than national aspirations; they were not aware of national projects, made alliances with the Ottomans and robbed Christians as much as Muslims.
There were also some Bosniaks armatoles, who were drawn from the local Muslim populations, (2025). 9780472068937, University of Michigan Press. ISBN 9780472068937 as well as some Aromanians armatoles, many of whom cooperated with pro-Bulgarian .Gheorghe Bogdan (2025). 9780494875728, University of Northern British Columbia. . ISBN 9780494875728 There also were Megleno-Romanian armatoles. Vulturii Pindului – O vizită importantă în Baltă.
Administrative districts known as armatolikia were created in areas of Greece that had high levels of brigandage (i.e. klephts), or in regions that were difficult for Ottoman authorities to govern due to the inaccessible terrain. An armatoliki was commanded by a kapetanios often a former klepht captain who had been hired by the governing Ottoman Empire pasha to combat, or at least contain, brigand groups operating in the region. In most cases, the captain would have gained a level of notoriety as a klepht to force the Ottomans to give him amnesty and the privileges that came with an armatoliki. Therefore, it was not surprising that armatole units were organised in very much the same way as the , with a captain assisted by a lieutenant called a protopalikaro, who was usually a kinsman, and the remaining force made up of armatoles. Many captains ran their armatolikia like their personal fiefdoms, exacting a heavy toll of extortion and violence on the local peasantry.
The armatoles were mostly concentrated in Greek Macedonia, Thessaly, Epirus, Acarnania, and Aetolia (specifically Agrafa). In the Peloponnese, armatolismos did not develop in the same manner as it did in Roumeli and Epirus. In the Peloponnese, the kapoi (κάποι) and the meintanides (μεϊντάνηδες) were similar to the armatoles. If in certain regions, the institution of armatolismos was not implemented, the territories were divided into armatolikia (αρματολίκια) or protakta (προτάκτα). These territories extended from the Axios River ( Αξιός) to the Ambracian Gulf ( Αμβρακικός) and up to the Corinthian Gulf ( Κορινθιακός). The kapetanioi would often have authority over these territories via inheritance/succession. A single kapetanio was at first forced to submit his authority to the pasha who controlled the periphery. Later, all kapetanioi were forced to submit to Dervedji pasha ( Δερβετζή πασά).
During the 18th century, there were around seventeen armatolikia. Ten of them were located in Thessaly and the eastern regions of Central Greece, four of them in Epirus, Acarnania, and Aetolia, and three in Macedonia. Every kapetanio had his rank-and-file soldiers known as palikaria (παλικάρια, from ancient Greek pallix) and section leaders among these palikaria were known as protopalikara (πρωτοπαλίκαρα). The palikaria would train with their weapons on a daily basis.
The main weapon the palikaria utilized was the kariofili (καριοφίλι).A front-loading gun from Cario & Figlio, an 18th-century maker of such guns. Marksmanship was the proverbial hallmark that defined the palikaria. They were also highly mobile and capable at conducting . The palikaria were resilient toward thirst, hunger and even the painful difficulties in their encounters with the klephts.
The term klephtopolemos (κλεφτοπόλεμος) was used to name the strategies/tactics that both the klephts and armatoles utilized. These tactics are used today for unconventional military campaigns by small guerrilla groups. The armatoles would conduct campaigns during nighttime. This strategy was known as "going out to pagana" (έβγαιναν στην παγάνα). The armatoles would usually do this when the klephts were coming out of their dens. The armatoles would defend themselves in improvised forts (called meterizia; μετερίζια) against the guerrilla tactics utilized by the klephts (specifically known as klephtouria; κλεφτουριά). A general offensive campaign by the armatoles was known as giourousi (γιουρούσι). During one of these campaigns, the armatoles would make effective use of swords and war cries.
Contrary to conventional Greek history, many of the klephts and armatoles participated at the Greek War of Independence according to their own militaristic patron-client terms. They saw the war as an economic and political opportunity to expand their areas of operation. Balkan bandits such as the klephts and armatoles - glorified in nationalist historiography as national heroes - were actually driven by economic interests, were not aware of national projects, made alliances with the Ottomans and robbed Christians as much as Muslims.
Albanians armatoles were employed by Ottoman authorities, in particular in the latter half of the 18th century. During the administration of the Ottoman Albanian ruler Ali Pasha of the increasingly independent Pashalik of Yanina the Greek armatoles where replaced by Albanians, making the region's armatoles almost exclusively Albanian. The deposed Greek armatoles became klephts and their subsequent activity was not only brigandage, but also a form of resistance against Ottoman rule.
Ali Pasha appointed under his direct authority a number of armatoloi and klephts who were loyal to him, and who were employed as his own military troops in Yanina and in territories under his administration. The defeat of Ali Pasha by the Ottoman Empire in 1820 and the subsequent outbreak of the Greek revolution generated a vacuum of power in the region, especially until 1823. Initially the armatoloi who formerly fought for Ali Pasha tried to preserve their independence and military leadership, but when their areas of control came under the authority of the Greek revolutionary leadership, they tried to keep their power in this new context.
Ali Pasha positioned the Arvanite Odysseas Androutsos as armatolos of Livadeia in eastern central Greece in 1816. In 1818 Androutsos became a member of the Filiki Eteria with Athanasios Diakos, an organisation that aimed at the independence of Greece, and with the defeat of Ali Pasha Androutsos joined the Greek revolutionary army.Deligiannis, Periklis (2009). "Οδυσσέας Ανδρούτσος : Η μάχη της Γραβιάς (8 Μαϊου 1821)" Odysseas. Στρατιωτική Ιστορία ("Military History") (in Greek). Περισκόπιο ("Periskopio") (151): pp. 13–14. In 1825 he permanentrly changed allegiances and joined the army of the Ottoman Albanian ruler Omer Vrioni, Pasha of Yanina, and thereafter he was captured and executed by the Greek revolutionaries.
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